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9 October 2024

Discriminating between Biotic and Abiotic Stress in Poplar Forests Using Hyperspectral and LiDAR Data

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1
Beijing Key Laboratory for Forest Pest Control, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
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Sino-French Joint Laboratory for Invasive Forest Pests in Eurasia, Beijing Forestry University—French National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food and Environment (INRAE), Beijing 100083, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens.2024, 16(19), 3751;https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16193751
This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Monitoring of Forest Resources Based on Multi-Source Remote Sensing Data
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Abstract

Sustainable forest management faces challenges from various biotic and abiotic stresses. The Asian longhorned beetle (ALB) and drought stress both induce water shortages in poplar trees, but require different management strategies. In northwestern China, ALB and drought stress caused massive mortality in poplar shelterbelts, which seriously affected the ecological functions of poplars. Developing a large-scale detection method for discriminating them is crucial for applying targeted management. This study integrated UAV-hyperspectral and LiDAR data to distinguish between ALB and drought stress in poplars of China’s Three-North Shelterbelt. These data were analyzed using a Partial Least Squares-Support Vector Machine (PLS-SVM). The results showed that the LiDAR metric (elev_sqrt_mean_sq) was key in detecting drought, while the hyperspectral band (R970) was key in ALB detection, underscoring the necessity of integrating both sensors. Detection of ALB in poplars improved when the poplars were well watered. The classification accuracy was 94.85% for distinguishing well-watered from water-deficient trees, and 80.81% for detecting ALB damage. Overall classification accuracy was 78.79% when classifying four stress types: healthy, only ALB affected, only drought affected, and combined stress of ALB and drought. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of UAV-hyperspectral and LiDAR data in distinguishing ALB and drought stress in poplar forests, which contribute to apply targeted treatments based on the specific stress in poplars in northwest China.

1. Introduction

The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis Motschulsky [Coleoptera: Cerambycidae], ALB) is a wood-boring pest that poses a significant biotic threat to broadleaved forests worldwide []. Native to Eastern China and the Korean Peninsula, it is recognized as one of the 100 worst invasive alien species in the world by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The ALB was first intercepted in North America in 1992 and rapidly caused significant economic losses [,,]. In Europe, the ALB was initially found in 2001 in Austria and has since been detected over almost all of Europe []. In the 1990s, the ALB was introduced to the Hexi Corridor region of northwestern China, leading to significant mortality in poplar shelterbelts []. The region’s sparse precipitation and severe drought further weakened the trees, exacerbating the damage caused by the ALB. ALB adults were preferentially attracted to drought-stressed A. negundo trees []. Prompt monitoring of drought conditions is crucial for preventing ALB infestations. Although poplars under drought and ALB stress exhibit similar symptoms of water shortage, their causes and management differ. Drought is due to insufficient water, which will recover when irrigation is sufficient, but ALB damage is irrecoverable. As a borer pest, the ALB is mainly harmed by larvae tunneling in the cambial region and wood [,], disrupting the tree’s vascular tissues, hindering the upward transport of nutrients and water, and leading to tree death []. Timely detection and discrimination are essential for applying appropriate treatments based on the specific type of stress.
With continuous improvement in image resolution and data analytical methods, remote sensing has been widely applied to modern forestry management [,,]. Hyperspectral imagery (HSI) contains spectral information in narrow bands, which provides insights into leaf pigmentation and physiological conditions, facilitating early detection of plant stress [,,]. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data offer precise three-dimensional information, which enables gathering detailed information on the structural change of tree canopies under stress. Nonetheless, using either HSI or LiDAR data alone has limitations in assessment. For example, HSI cannot accurately discern the canopy structure and is highly susceptible to canopy shading, leading to reduced spectral information and altered shapes in the hyperspectral data []. LiDAR data can offer precise three-dimensional information to offset these limitations in HSI data []. A Support Vector Machine (SVM) is a widely used machine-learning algorithm known for its ability to handle complex decision boundaries and its effectiveness with small sample sizes while providing robust generalization performance []. To address the high dimensionality, collinearity, and risk of overfitting often associated with large datasets, Lv and Dai (2006) introduced the Partial Least Squares-Support Vector Machine (PLS-SVM) method. PLS-SVM uses PLS to extract key features from the data, reducing dimensionality and mitigating overfitting, and then uses these features as inputs for the SVM calibration model []. This approach not only enhances prediction precision but also significantly reduces modeling time compared to using SVM on the full dataset. In our study, we employed PLS-SVM to effectively reduce the dimensionality of both hyperspectral and LiDAR data, thereby preventing overfitting and enabling more efficient and accurate classification.
Some studies have focused on using hyperspectral images to discriminate the biotic and abiotic stress on plants [,,]. Data dimensionality reduction and classification based on machine-learning methods were widely used []. Susič et al. (2018) used hyperspectral data and the PLS-SVM method to discriminate between nematode infestation and drought stress in tomato, which achieved up to 100% accuracy in differentiating between well-watered and water-deficient plants, and between 90 and 100% when identifying nematode-infested plants []. Ramamoorthy et al. (2022) used Principal component analysis and maximum likelihood classifiers to discriminate drought and root–knot nematode infestation in cotton and the results were promising []. Praprotnik et al. (2022) combined sparse partial least squares discriminant analysis and support vector machine classification of hyperspectral data to detect wireworm infestation and drought stress in Maize and obtained accuracies of 67–84.7% []. These experiments explored the discrimination between biotic and abiotic stresses but paid less attention to combined stress. Additionally, these studies relied solely on hyperspectral data and did not incorporate LiDAR to investigate 3D structural differences.
Generally, the Gobi Desert region of northwest China is in extreme drought, poplars require irrigation and are highly susceptible to ALB stress. Trees damaged by ALBs showed similar symptoms of water shortage as drought stress but significant differences in management. Timely detection of them is essential for applying appropriate treatments based on the specific type of stress. The goals of this study were to: (1) evaluate the capacity of UAV-hyperspectral and LiDAR data to detect and discriminate ALB damage, drought stress and combined stress; (2) explore how hyperspectral and LiDAR variables response to stresses and search for the most sensitive indices for detection.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The research plots are located in Jiuquan City, Gansu Province, northwest China, which belong to the Gobi landform. The climate type is a continental arid climate. Average annual precipitation is 80 mm, but average annual evaporation reaches 2000 mm. In this research, two forest farms with different water conditions (well irrigated and non-irrigated) and similarly aged trees were selected (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Study areas in this research. (a) Jiuquan Xincheng national Forest Farm (well watered). (b) Jiuquan Sanhe national Forest Farm (water deficient). Four sampled plots are marked blue.
Plot 1 (Figure 1a): Jiuquan Xincheng national Forest Farm (39°57′N, 98°23′E). Farmland windbreak forest, well irrigated, with surface water, including stands with health and ALB damage and a tree age of 40–60 years. The studied tree species were Populus gansuensis, Populus alba var. pyramidalis, and Salix matsudana.
Plot 2 (Figure 1b): Jiuquan Sanhe national Forest Farm (39°23′N, 99°04′E). Extremely poor irrigation conditions, no surface water, and there has been no normal irrigation for two years. The stand contains health and ALB damage, and the tree ages are 40–60 years. The studied tree species were the same as Plot 1.
Both farms contain poplars with health and ALB-damage. Both farms are located in a flat area at an elevation of 1480 m. Soil conditions are the same: brown desert soil with low organic matter content and poor nitrogen. Both plots are total covered with Populus gansuensis. We established two 50 × 50 m plots in each forest farms, for a total of four plots. There was a total of four types of sample trees: healthy (H), damaged only by ALBs (A), damaged only by drought (D), and combined damaged by both ALBs and drought (AD) (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Four types of poplars in this experiment. Abbreviations of each sample of poplars are shown in brackets.

2.2. Determination of Soil Moisture Conditions

A FieldScout TDR-300 probe with 15 cm long TDR rods (Spectrum Technologies, Inc., Aurora, CO, USA) was used to measure the soil moisture content at each sample plot. Given the strong solar radiation over the Gobi Desert, we measured soil water content 50 cm below the surface to determine the drought status of each sample plot. The volumetric water content (VWC) was used to determine the degree of soil dryness, an indicator of drought []. Before measurement, we calibrated the meter to ensure the accuracy. We then randomly select ten points in each sample plot, taking the average value as the soil water content. Table 1 shows VWC of two forest farms.
Table 1. Volumetric water content (VWC) of two forest farms.

2.3. Determination of ALB Damage and Measurement of Leaf Area Index

The Asian longhorned beetle is a hidden trunk borer. We determined whether the poplar is damaged by ALB by looking for funnel-shaped oviposition pit, defecation holes, and circular exit holes (Figure 3) []. If these symptoms appear on a poplar tree, we consider it to be damaged by ALBs. We also searched for crown thinning, which is easily identified and manifests itself as sparse leaves and dry branches. Leaf area index (LAI) represents leaf density and reflects biophysical abilities including photosynthesis and respiration []. We measured LAI to assess crown thinning by averaging four individual measurements taken in the cardinal directions of sample trees using the SmartLAI app []. A total of 325 poplars were surveyed: 66 healthy (H); 75 with only ALB stress (A); 80 with only drought stress (D); and 104 with both ALB and drought stress (AD). Table 2 shows the LAI of poplars under four types of stressors.
Figure 3. Evidence for determine ALB damage. (a) ALB adult grooving a funnel-shaped oviposition pit. (b) Frass discharged by ALB larvae. (c) Circular exit holes of ALB adults.
Table 2. Leaf area index of poplars stands under four types of stressors.

2.4. UAV-Hyperspectral and LiDAR Data Acquisition and Pre-Processing

UAV-hyperspectral imagery (HSI) and LiDAR data were simultaneously collected using a DJI Matrice 600 UAV system (DJI, Shenzhen, China) during the same flight campaign (Figure 4). The mounting system enables the hyperspectral and LiDAR equipment to jointly use the UAV’s Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) and Global Positioning System (GPS), facilitating high-precision ortho-correction and data fusion. The UAV was also equipped with an RTK system for centimeter-precise positioning. Data were acquired for plot 1 (well watered) on 2 August 2021 from 12:20 to 12:50 PM and for plot 2 (water deficient) on 3 August 2021 from 11:50 AM to12:30 PM. Flights were conducted under a cloudless sky, at an altitude of 100 m, and a speed of 3 m/s, with imagery overlapping by 60% at the front and sides.
Figure 4. The UAV-mounted system in this research.
LiDAR data were collected with the LR1601-IRIS UAV-mounted system (IRIS Inc., Beijing, China). Its pulse repetition frequency was 5–20 Hz with two returns per pulse. Point density ranged from 100 to 900 points per m2. The LiDAR data were preprocessed through strip alignment, noise point removal, and ground point classification using the LiDAR360 software (version 3.0, GreenValley International, Beijing, China). Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Digital Surface Model (DSM) were generated with a spatial resolution of 0.1 m.
The HI sensor has a field of view of 10° and a focal length of 17 mm. The hyperspectral images encompassed 150 spectral bands, ranging from 400 to 1000 nm. Hyperspectral images were generated at a spatial resolution of 0.1 m. Reflectance correction and radiometric calibration were performed using a standard white board (Figure 4). Hyperspectral images were matched to LiDAR data with twelve ground control points (GCPs) with an overall root mean square errors (RMSEs) < 1 pixel.

2.5. Extraction of Hyperspectral and LiDAR Features

A Canopy Height Model (CHM) segmentation algorithm in the LiDAR360 software (GreenValley Inc., Shanghai, China) was used to segment single trees []. The CHM, produced from DSM and DEM, also has a resolution of 0.1 m. Hyperspectral and LiDAR features for sample trees were extracted based on the CHM segmentation results. Sample trees incorrectly segmented by the CHM algorithm were manually delineated for extraction. Hyperspectral reflectance was computed only for sunlit pixels of each tree crowns. The hyperspectral reflectance of each canopy was smoothed using the second-order polynomial of the Savitzky–Golay filter. Table 3 summarizes the 23 spectral variables including twelve vegetation indices, five absorption bands, two red-edge parameters, and four absorption features. At the same time, 32 variables were extracted from the LiDAR including 14 variables related to the distribution of point-cloud heights, 13 metrics about the intensity of point-cloud, and five canopy densities based on all laser returns (Table 4) [,,]. In total, 55 variables, comprising both hyperspectral and LiDAR features, were utilized for variable screening and developing the PLS-SVM classification model.
Table 3. Selection of candidate hyperspectral variables.
Table 4. Selection of candidate LiDAR metrics.

2.6. PLS-SVM Model and Classification

Before modelling, we used partial least squares—variable importance in projection (VIP) for data mining and to reduce collinearity impact in variables, thus to simplify the model structure and improve classification accuracy []. The VIP values were calculated by each predictor’s importance in reflecting the weighted sum of squares of the PLS weights, and its score estimates the importance of each variable in the projection used in the PLS model []. We selected the 10 variables with highest VIP values for each model to avoid overfitting in classification []. The capacity factor (C) and gamma values for the PLS-SVM classification were determined by performing a random search of several combinations of C and gamma []. The best combination of parameters was used to establish the PLS-SVM model. All variables were divided into a train-set and test-set in the ratio of 7 to 3. A 10-fold cross-validation method was used to assess model accuracy. The classification accuracy was evaluated using the producer’s accuracy (PA), user’s accuracy (UA), overall accuracy (OA), and the Kappa coefficient (K) derived from confusion matrices. These indicators provide a comprehensive assessment of the classification accuracy of the variables, with PA indicating the accuracy of each class, UA reflecting the reliability of the classified data, OA showing the overall correctness, and the Kappa coefficient accounting for chance agreement.
The hyperspectral and LiDAR parameters of 325 poplar trees were used for classifications according to the actual management needs (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Four classification models according to the plantation management needs.
  • Model 1: Is the poplar under stress?
  • Model 2: Is the poplar under drought?
  • Model 3: Is the poplar under ALB stress?
  • Model 4: Is the poplar healthy, under ALB stress, drought stress, or combined stress of drought and ALB?
The VIP analyses, PLS-SVM evaluation, and classification were performed using R software (version 4.1.2).

3. Results

3.1. Signatures of ALB and Drought Stress

The mean reflectance curves of poplars under different stresses within 400–1000 nm are shown in Figure 6. For different models, the differences of reflectance were most obvious in the green peak (500–600 nm) and NIR (750–1000 nm). Figure 7 illustrates ten typical hyperspectral indices and LiDAR metrics sensitive to stresses. Significant differences were observed in poplars under water-deficient conditions, particularly in elev_sqrt_mean_sq, which was notably lower in water-deficient poplars compared to those without water deficiency. Similarly, significant differences were found in poplars affected by ALB damage, especially in GH. The GH value in ALB-damaged poplars was significantly lower than in poplars without ALB damage.
Figure 6. Mean spectral reflectance of poplars grouped according to: (a) Healthy/Unhealthy; (b) Well watered/Water deficient; (c) ALB damaged/Non-ALB; (d) Healthy/ALB infected/Drought stress/Combined stress. Note: The shaded region indicates the standard deviation of the mean value.
Figure 7. Ten typical parameters derived from hyperspectral and LiDAR images at different stress (H: Healthy; A: ALB stress; D: Drought stress; AD: ALB and Drought stress).

3.2. Classification Accuracy

The PLS-SVM classification results indicated it was possible to distinguish between biotic and abiotic stress on poplars, though detection accuracy varied significantly across different stress types (Figure 8). The accuracy for identifying healthy poplars was 94.79% (Model 1). The classification accuracy for drought-affected poplars was 94.85% (Model 2), while the accuracy for identifying ALB-damaged poplars was only 80.81% (Model 3). The overall classification accuracy for the four different stress types was 78.79% (Model 4).
Figure 8. Confusion matrices for the five datasets based on PLS-SVM classification. (a) H: Healthy, UH: Unhealthy; (b) WW: Well watered, WD: Water deficiency (Drought); (c) A: ALB damaged, NA: Non-ALB; (d) H: Healthy, A: ALB stress, D: Drought stress, AD: ALB and Drought stress.
When classifying tree stress (or health—see below, model 1), the five most important parameters (VOG, REP, CIred-edge, RENDVI, CI) were related to the red edge in hyperspectral parameters and, thus, to leaf pigment. Compared with unhealthy poplar, healthy poplar showed lower value in VOG, and higher values in REP, CI red-edge, REND VI, and CI.
When classifying data based on whether trees were under drought stress (model 2), the five most obvious differences were elev_sqrt_mean_sq, REP, GP, VOG, and elev_stddev (Table 5). Among them, elev_sqrt_mean_SQ and elev_Stddev are related to the distribution of point cloud heights in LiDAR outputs. Compared with well-watered poplars, poplars under water deficiency showed lower values in elev_sqrt_mean_sq, REP, and elev_Stddev, and higher values in GP and VOG.
Table 5. Variables used in each PLS-SVM model. (Ranked from high to low according to VIP value, only the top ten most important classification variables are shown).
When classifying whether the trees were under biotic ALB stress (model 3), the most obvious differences appeared in R970, Height_99th/Tree Height, int_cv, VOG, and dRE (AMP) (Table 5). The R970 is a hyperspectral near-infrared band and related to plant water and chlorophyll content []. The variable Height_99th/Tree Height was the 99th percentile height of crown return points (normalized by tree height) from LiDAR. This was closely related to the dry treetop characteristics of poplar that ALB damaged. The int_cv is a radar intensity variable, indicating the coefficient of variation of crown return intensity. Compared with non-ALB poplars, poplars under ALB-damage showed lower values in R970, Height_99th/Tree Height, int_cv, and higher values in VOG and dRE (AMP).
When classifying whether trees were healthy, only under ALB stress, only under drought stress, or under the combined stress of drought and ALB (model 4), the most obvious differences lie in elev_sqrt_mean_sq, VOG, R970, GH, and dRE (AMP). Detection of ALBs in poplars improved when the stand was well watered. The Producer’s accuracy of well-watered poplars under ALB damage was 86.96%. However, the Producer’s accuracy of poplars with insufficient water under ALB damage was only 79.41% (Figure 8d).

4. Discussion

4.1. Optimal Variables for Classification

The research evaluated 23 hyperspectral vegetation indices and 32 LiDAR metrics using PLS-VIP to assess their responsiveness to drought and ALB stress. The LiDAR metric (elev_sqrt_mean_sq) proved crucial for drought detection, whereas the hyperspectral band (R970) was key in identifying ALB, underscoring the need to integrate both sensors. The elev_sqrt_mean_sq represents the quadratic mean of elevations of all returns in LiDAR data, typically used to indicate the surface complexity of forest or vegetative cover. A higher quadratic mean may indicate greater canopy height and density, and a more complex vegetation structure [,,]. In poplars subjected to drought stress, leaf sparsity and a lower leaf area index compared to healthy poplars were observed, leading to a low elev_sqrt_mean_sq values (Table 2). R970 is in the near-infrared region, which is sensitive to vegetation water and chlorophyll content, as well as overall plant health. Healthy vegetation exhibits higher reflectance at R970, while stressed vegetation, due to reduced water and chlorophyll content, shows lower reflectance [,]. ALB damage impedes the transport of water and nutrients in trees, leading to insufficient water in the leaves and degradation of chlorophyll [,].
Previous studies on monitoring forest stress using UAV-hyperspectral and LiDAR mainly focuses on detecting pests and diseases in coniferous trees, in which LiDAR was just a tool for single tree segmentation and providing structure information for hyperspectral image. LiDAR alone cannot effectively detect forest pest for it cannot reveal the biochemical condition of trees [,]. Unlike previous studies, in this experiment, LiDAR metrics effectively detect forest pest. The primary reason for this may be that as a broadleaf tree, the three-dimensional structure of poplar canopies is highly sensitive and responsive to stress []. Poplars under drought and ALB stress displayed dried-up leaves when compared with healthy poplars. But the location of dried-up leaves could only be detected using vertical canopy features of LiDAR data, which confirms the utility of LiDAR’s three-dimensional structural analysis in monitoring ALB and drought stress in poplar trees.

4.2. Discrimination Performance for Biotic and Abiotic Stress

By combining UAV-hyperspectral and LiDAR data with PLS-SVM, we successfully detected and differentiated biotic and abiotic stresses in poplars. The accuracy reached 94.85% accuracy in detecting drought and 80.81% accuracy for ALB damage. The overall classification accuracy stood at 78.79% for four poplar categories: healthy, ALB-affected only, drought-affected only, and those with combined drought and ALB damage. Poplar trees under drought were detected more accurately (OA: 94.85%, K: 0.90). However, the accuracy for detecting ALB-induced damage in poplars was notably lower (OA: 80.81%, K: 0.62). This indicates that the phenotypic changes caused by ALB are more subtle compared to those induced by drought, making them more difficult to detect. ALB damage detection was more reliable in well-irrigated conditions (PA: 86.96%) compared to water-deficient conditions (PA: 79.41%) (Figure 8d). This indicated that drought-induced effects can mask the specific spectral and structural changes indicative of ALB damage. Global warming is predicted to lead to more severe droughts in forest ecosystems, resulting in more severe biotic stress. Many tree-boring pests act as secondary invaders. For example, Ips typographus Linnaeus preferentially attacks weak trees [,]. ALB adults showed a preference for drought-stressed A. negundo trees []. Drought-induced weakening is likely to worsen the impact of tree-boring beetles. Prompt monitoring of drought is crucial for ALB prevention. Remote sensing applications in forestry offer solutions to these challenges in modern forest management.
This study was conducted in August but lacked a time-series analysis to determine a time-stable indicators for detecting poplars under pest and drought stress across their phenological stages, highlighting a key area for future research. The impact of phenology on broadleaf trees is unavoidable. Broadleaf tree leaves naturally wither at the end of the growing season, even in the absence of stress. The stresses may cause the trees to wither earlier than phenology, which needs further investigation. Additionally, the life cycle of the pest may also affect the detection of borer pests. ALB undergoes various stages in its life cycle, such as prepupae, pupae, adults, eggs, and larvae, with the larval stage was considered as the main damage period []. The best option is to find a time-stable indicator for accurately detecting ALB before the adults lay new eggs during the growing seasons, which needs a time-series study within the growing seasons.

4.3. Selecting Variables Based on ALB Damage Characteristics

Distinguishing between various stresses necessitates stress-specific parameters (Table 5). Unique symptoms exhibited by trees under specific stress should be considered [,]. Although ALB-induced damage resembles drought-related tree death, they manifest differently in trees. Drought, as a systemic stressor, induces widespread leaf senescence throughout trees [,], whereas ALB damage initiates senescence at the canopy’s top (Figure 9). This treetop dieback is determined by the biological behavior of the ALB. The main damage period occurs during the larval stage, wherein the larvae consume the phloem, disrupting the upward transport of water and nutrients in the trees [,,]. Additionally, female ALBs prefer laying eggs in the upper trunk regions, concentrating the larvae in the tree’s upper parts []. In this research, Height_99th/Tree Height from the LiDAR metric was correlates strongly correlates with ALB-damaged poplars for it ranks as the second most significant variable for ALB detection (Table 5). It represents the ratio of the 99th percentile height of all returns to the average tree height and was commonly used to monitor canopy loss and reductions in aboveground biomass in stressed forests [,]. Selecting variables based on ALB damage characteristics can notably decrease the workload involved in variable selection. However, this approach may have two limitations: first, it requires a higher point cloud density of LiDAR; second, the differences may not be evident at early stage of damage. Early stress detection necessitates further exploration of spectral data within the narrow bands of the hyperspectral spectrum [,,].
Figure 9. Dried tops of poplars under ALB damage. (a) RGB image. (b) LiDAR image.

5. Conclusions

Our research demonstrated the combination of a UAV-hyperspectral image and LiDAR could detect and discriminate ALB and drought stress in poplar trees. The PLS-SVM classification achieved 94.85% accuracy in distinguishing between well-watered and water-deficient trees, and 80.81% accuracy in detecting ALB damage. The overall classification accuracy stood at 78.79% for classifying four poplar categories: healthy, ALB-affected only, drought-affected only, and those with combined drought and ALB damage. The developed classification models provide a valuable tool for detecting and differentiating stress types, enabling timely interventions such as irrigation or pest control in poplar forests, particularly in the challenging conditions of the Gobi Desert.

Author Contributions

Q.Z. designed and conducted this research, analyzed the results, and wrote the manuscript; L.Y., L.R. and Y.L. reviewed the manuscript; Q.Z., J.K. and X.Z. carried out the field surveys and ground data acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was funded by the “National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFD1401000 and 2022YFD1400400)”.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets used in this research are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

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