Middle Eastern Agrivoltaics: Technologies, Sustainability, and Economic Effects

Abstract

Agrivoltaic (AV) systems offer a promising solution to global challenges, such as land scarcity, food insecurity, and increasing energy demand, by enabling the simultaneous production of photovoltaic (PV) electricity and agricultural outputs on the same land. This review synthesizes more than two decades of interdisciplinary research on solar–agriculture integration, including agrivoltaic systems, biomass-based approaches, and greenhouse-integrated photovoltaic technologies, with particular emphasis on their relevance to arid and semi-arid environments, such as those found in the Middle East. The impacts of different PV configurations (such as semi-transparent, bifacial, vertical, and sun-tracking modules) on crop productivity, microclimatic conditions, and land-use efficiency are critically examined. The findings indicate that AV systems, particularly in water-scarce, high-irradiance regions, can enhance climate resilience, reduce competition for land, and improve both energy and water-use efficiency. Recent advances in crop selection strategies, adaptive PV system designs, and smart irrigation technologies further strengthen the feasibility of these systems for Middle Eastern agricultural systems. Nevertheless, key challenges remain, including the need for region-specific design optimization, improved understanding of crop light requirements, and robust assessments of economic viability under diverse policy and market conditions. Overall, life cycle assessments and techno-economic analyses confirm the environmental and economic benefits of AV systems, especially for sustainable irrigation, agricultural productivity, and rural development in the Middle East context. This review provides strategic insights to support the sustainable deployment and scaling of agrivoltaic systems across Middle Eastern agricultural landscapes, informed by global experience. A dedicated regional assessment summarizes existing agrivoltaic pilots and feasibility studies across the Middle East and North Africa, highlighting technology choices, crop compatibility, and policy drivers.

1. Introduction

The urgent global need to transition toward sustainable energy systems is driving unprecedented growth in the development and deployment of renewable energy technologies, with solar photovoltaics (PVs) at the forefront due to their scalability, declining costs, and low environmental impact [1,2,3]. As countries worldwide strive to meet ambitious climate targets and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, the demand for clean, low-carbon energy sources is intensifying rapidly. However, this growing deployment of PV infrastructure raises significant challenges, especially concerning land use. Land availability is increasingly constrained, particularly in regions where agricultural productivity is vital for ensuring food security and supporting rural livelihoods [4,5,6,7]. The competition between solar energy projects and agriculture can lead to conflicts over land allocation, potentially threatening local economies and ecosystem services [8,9,10,11]. In response to these challenges, agrivoltaics (also referred to as agrophotovoltaics or APV) have emerged as a groundbreaking dual-use concept that harmonizes renewable energy generation with agricultural production on the same parcel of land. By integrating PV systems directly with crop cultivation, agrivoltaic systems aim to optimize land productivity rather than displace one use with another. This innovative approach leverages the complementary interactions between solar panels and crops to maximize the overall output of energy and food, offering a sustainable solution that addresses multiple resource constraints simultaneously [12,13,14,15,16].

Agrivoltaic systems help resolve land-use conflicts by enhancing land-use efficiency and contributing to several broader sustainability objectives. For instance, they support climate change mitigation efforts by generating clean electricity that replaces fossil fuel-based power sources, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, they can facilitate rural electrification by providing locally generated power to agricultural communities, reducing reliance on centralized grids and promoting energy self-sufficiency. Water conservation is another critical benefit: agrivoltaic shading can reduce soil evaporation and crop water requirements, making these systems particularly valuable in arid and semi-arid regions facing water scarcity. Beyond these environmental benefits, agrivoltaic installations can improve crop microclimates by moderating temperature extremes and protecting plants from excessive solar radiation, wind, or heavy rainfall. This sheltering effect can alleviate heat stress and evapotranspiration rates, leading to improved crop resilience and potentially higher yields under certain conditions. Furthermore, the electricity generated by the PV panels can power vital agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation pumps, cold storage units, and processing equipment, thereby enhancing the productivity and economic viability of farms. This integration creates a synergistic relationship where energy production and food cultivation mutually reinforce one another, ultimately fostering more resilient and sustainable rural landscapes.

Agrivoltaics, also referred to as agrophotovoltaics, is an emerging and highly promising energy–agriculture integration concept that enables the simultaneous use of land for both solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation and crop cultivation. This dual-use system facilitates a strategic sharing of sunlight between energy and food production, optimizing land-use efficiency in the face of increasing climate, energy, and food security challenges. Designing an effective agrivoltaic installation often involves balancing trade-offs among energy yield, crop productivity, and crop quality, depending on the type of crops, regional solar irradiance, and panel configurations.

By co-locating PV infrastructure with agricultural activity, agrivoltaics foster a synergistic relationship between clean energy generation and sustainable farming, offering environmental, economic, and social benefits. These include improved land-use efficiency, reduced water consumption, microclimate regulation, and enhanced farmer income diversification. For instance, as illustrated in Figure 1, conventional land use for either agriculture (e.g., wheat cultivation) or solar PV alone utilizes 100% of the land for a single purpose. In contrast, the combined agrivoltaic approach, shown at the bottom of the figure, demonstrates how integrated land use for both agriculture and energy can boost land productivity by up to 60%. Additionally, Figure 2 presents the absorption and emission characteristics of agrivoltaic technology, highlighting its potential in regulating light distribution and improving system efficiency. Where A is the emission of the solar spectrum at ground level, D is the solar light input, B is the absorption from the solar light to the ground, and C is the wavelength absorption.

Agrivoltaic systems represent an innovative and transformative approach to addressing two of the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century: the rising demand for clean, renewable energy and the need to ensure food security in the face of climate change and land scarcity. By integrating photovoltaic (PV) solar panels with agricultural activities on the same plot of land, agrivoltaics (also known as agrophotovoltaics) offer a synergistic dual land-use solution that enhances land-use efficiency, supports rural development, and contributes to both climate resilience and energy transition goals.

As the world grapples with finite arable land and growing energy demands, traditional land allocation models, where land is used exclusively for either solar energy generation or agriculture, are proving increasingly unsustainable. Agrivoltaics provide a compelling alternative by allowing the simultaneous cultivation of crops and generation of solar power, thereby mitigating land-use conflicts and optimizing productivity. Technological advances such as bifacial and semi-transparent PV panels, adjustable and sun-tracking mounting systems, and modular greenhouse-integrated PV structures have expanded the scope of agrivoltaics, making them adaptable to various climatic regions and crop types.

Over the past decade, research in this field has accelerated. Field experiments and demonstration projects around the world, from Europe and North America to Asia and Africa, have tested agrivoltaic configurations on a wide range of crops including cereals, leafy vegetables, tomatoes, grapes, rice, and bok choy. These studies reveal that certain crops can benefit from partial shading, with improvements in yield, water-use efficiency, and microclimate regulation, all while producing substantial solar energy. Tools such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD), Energy Plus, and the Light Productivity Factor (LPF) metric have further enhanced the design and optimization of these systems by evaluating their light-sharing efficiency and thermal performance.

Despite the promise of agrivoltaics, several challenges persist. Research to date has been fragmented, often limited to specific geographic locations, crop types, or technology types. Key gaps include the absence of standardized performance metrics, limited long-term data on economic and environmental impacts, and a lack of integrated models that combine agronomic, technical, and socio-economic parameters. Furthermore, adoption remains constrained by barriers such as initial investment costs, limited awareness, technical complexity, and regulatory uncertainty.

From a local and regional perspective, agrivoltaic systems offer tremendous potential, especially in areas with abundant solar radiation but limited arable land. Tailoring system designs to local crops, climate conditions, and energy needs, alongside stakeholder engagement, farmer education, and supportive policies, will be crucial for successful implementation. Region-specific studies that incorporate socio-economic tools such as SWOT analysis or FEADPLUS frameworks can help align agrivoltaic strategies with local development goals and sustainability agendas.

The Middle East is characterized by arid and semi-arid climates, extreme summer temperatures, high solar irradiance, and significant water scarcity, creating unique challenges for sustainable agricultural production. Although agrivoltaic systems have been widely studied in temperate and humid regions, large-scale deployments in the Middle East remain limited. Consequently, global agrivoltaic experiences provide valuable insights that can be adapted to local crops, technology configurations, and operational practices. This review synthesizes both international and emerging regional studies to identify strategies for effective agrivoltaic implementation in Middle Eastern environments, highlighting opportunities, constraints, and research needs specific to the region.

This review synthesizes findings from over 140 research studies published between 1976 and 2025, encompassing technological innovations, environmental evaluations, economic feasibility studies, and socio-political analyses. It categorizes agrivoltaic systems by technology type, geographic region, operational constraints, and sustainability outcomes. Emphasis is placed on recent innovations such as open-source testbeds, dynamic shading systems, and interdisciplinary design approaches.

The aim of this review is not only to present the state of current agrivoltaic research but also to provide a roadmap for future studies, inform policy development, and support practical deployment. By consolidating fragmented knowledge and identifying gaps and opportunities, this paper aspires to contribute to the development of resilient, efficient, and sustainable food–energy systems. Agrivoltaics, as demonstrated throughout this work, are more than a technical solution, they are a foundational element of climate-smart agriculture and sustainable energy policy for the decades to come.

2. Literature Review

Conceptual Framework for Agrivoltaic Systems

To synthesize the diverse literature and guide regional application, we propose a conceptual framework that links climate conditions, PV technology, crop selection, and sustainability outcomes. Studies are categorized according to the following:

• Climate zone: Arid, semi-arid, temperate, or humid.
• Technology–crop combination: PV configuration (elevated, semi-transparent, bifacial, and vertical) and crop type (shade-tolerant, heat-sensitive, and perennial).
• Sustainability dimension: Environmental (water and energy efficiency), economic (ROI and irrigation savings), and social/policy (land tenure and adoption).

This framework provides a structured lens to evaluate global agrivoltaic experience, highlight transferable lessons, and systematically inform Middle Eastern applications (a later section discusses regional synthesis). Each study in this review is mapped onto this framework, enabling a clear comparison across climates, technologies, crops, and outcomes.

Ref. [17] advocated a foundational study for biomass-based energy as an economically viable method of large-scale solar energy conversion compared to technologies like photovoltaics and mirrors. The authors emphasize the value of vegetation in energy production and detail the selection criteria for energy crops, land suitability, logistics, and economic feasibility. An energy budget for plant material production and harvesting was developed, covering the entire agricultural process from land preparation to harvesting. Additionally, the study compares two approaches: direct combustion of crops for electricity generation and conversion into fuel gases like methane. This multidisciplinary work integrates perspectives from energy technology, plant science, and agricultural economics, laying the groundwork for land-based solar energy strategies, including those compatible with agrivoltaics. Ref. [18] introduced a seminal paper on the concept of agrivoltaics, proposing the dual use of land for agriculture and solar energy collection. The authors present a system where elevated photovoltaic collectors (about 2 m high) are spaced adequately to allow light penetration for crops below, enabling both agricultural productivity and solar power generation. Through mathematical modeling and seasonal radiation analysis, they demonstrate that about two-thirds of total solar radiation still reaches the land under optimal collector arrangements. The study outlines design principles such as collector tilt, spacing, and reflectivity, emphasizing minimal land-use trade-offs and economic feasibility. It suggests compatible crops (e.g., rye, barley, and sugar beets) and even livestock grazing as potential co-uses. This approach offers a sustainable, efficient land-use model suitable for utility-scale deployment, especially in sun-rich regions like the Middle East. A configuration model of the elevated collector field is sketched in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The model sketch of the elevated collector field [18].

Figure 3. The model sketch of the elevated collector field [18].

Ref. [19] conducted feasibility studies on large-scale photovoltaic (PV) power plants in desert regions worldwide. They demonstrated that even with fixed flat-plate PV modules, electricity can be generated at a relatively low cost (7.70–13.12 Y/kWh) when the module price is around 100 Y/W. The analysis factored in site-specific conditions such as solar irradiation and local labor costs. The proposed 100 MW plant design includes modular sub-units, 20 sets of 10 units, each rated at 500 kW, for optimal scalability. While the model is preliminary, it highlights the economic viability of desert-based PV systems. Ref. [20] investigated how to determine the optimal area size for areally totalized photovoltaic (PV) systems by analyzing solar irradiance fluctuations. Using cross-correlation of solar data from nine locations, they evaluated two key parameters, fluctuation factor and power spectral density, to measure variability in solar power output. The study highlights that while areally integrated PV systems reduce localized output volatility, significant fluctuations can still occur even under highly correlated irradiance conditions. Therefore, to ensure grid stability and efficiency, it is crucial to carefully consider fluctuation impacts and distribution losses when planning the size and layout of large-scale, regionally distributed PV systems [20]. An Agricultural Shade Tolerance Study tested the growth of 30 forage and legume species in 7.6 L pots under full sun, and 50% and 80% shade. Conducted across three growing seasons (1994–1995), the study measured above-ground dry weights. Warm-season grasses showed significant reductions in biomass under shaded conditions, regardless of season. Cool-season forages were more tolerant, especially during summer–fall, with seven grasses showing no significant decline at 50% shade. Notably, smooth bromegrass even performed better under 50% shade. At 80% shade, most cool-season grasses experienced growth inhibition, except for Justus orchard grass and smooth bromegrass. Among legumes, hog peanut increased in biomass under both 50% and 80% shade, and several others, including alfalfa and white clover, showed little impact at 50% shade [21]. The integration of solar energy in modern buildings is often ineffective because buildings are not typically designed to utilize passive systems (e.g., windows and sunspace) or active systems (e.g., solar water collectors) efficiently. Although today’s buildings incorporate various solar technologies and can be energy-efficient, solar-heated, cooled, and PV-powered, the full potential of solar energy is not realized. The study explores various integration methods and emphasizes the importance of a holistic design approach to enhance solar system performance in architecture [22]. Nonhebel examines the conflict between land use for renewable energy generation (particularly photovoltaics and biomass) and food production. He emphasizes that land availability is a limiting factor, especially in poorer regions, where it is not feasible to meet both food and energy demands using biomass. Richer regions have more flexibility but would require substantial land conversion. PV systems are shown to be more land-efficient, though large-scale adoption demands significant infrastructure changes. While biomass remains a valuable renewable source, it alone cannot meet global energy needs, making PV a more promising long-term solution [23]. Ref. [24] examined the performance of a stand-alone solar-powered greenhouse ventilation system for over one month. They found that the automated side ventilator’s operation depended heavily on internal temperature, but the system’s efficiency was limited because the control circuit consumed more energy than the vent motors. To optimize performance and reduce overall system cost, minimizing control circuit energy use is essential. Additionally, increasing the number or size of vent holes led to higher energy consumption and greater temperature instability inside the greenhouse. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the greenhouse’s side event controller driven by PV energy.

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the greenhouse’s side event controller driven by PV energy [24].

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the greenhouse’s side event controller driven by PV energy [24].

Ref. [25] explore shade tolerance as a critical and complex trait influencing plant survival, community structure, and ecosystem dynamics. Shade tolerance is essential due to the varying light conditions plants face throughout their lives. While there is broad agreement on the traits contributing to shade tolerance, debate exists over the relative importance of maximizing photosynthetic gains in low light versus minimizing carbon losses. Shade tolerance is shaped by plant development (ontogeny) and both biotic and abiotic stressors like herbivory, drought, and nutrient levels. Although shade-tolerant species often exhibit limited phenotypic plasticity, they may still show high adaptability in morphological traits that enhance light capture. These adaptations vary between species and ecosystems. The authors highlight that light requirements increase with plant age, especially in less shade-tolerant species. Additionally, shade tolerance plays a significant role in how plant species respond to global environmental changes such as elevated CO₂, climate warming, and habitat fragmentation. Such changes may favor shade-intolerant or adaptable species while posing challenges for those reliant on low-light environments. Shade tolerance in plants often comes at the cost of reduced tolerance to other stresses like drought or flooding. This trade-off is more critical in ecosystems with shorter growing seasons, such as temperate forests, where plants must balance competing needs, like maximizing leaf area for light capture versus investing in roots and robust leaves for drought resistance. In contrast, in tropical regions with longer growing seasons, plants are better able to manage both shade and drought stress, making simultaneous tolerance more feasible, which is illustrated in Figure 5. Where (a) is a three-dimensional schematic illustrating shade tolerance as a function of co-occurring limiting factors and the duration of the growing season, and (b) is the interaction among climatic factors across different biomes as a function of growing season duration. Seedling leaf area ratio (LAR) increases with shade tolerance and is linked to leaf longevity, but this trend weakens in saplings. Shade tolerance in adults generally correlates with juveniles, though adults tend to be slightly less shade tolerant.

Figure 5. Shade tolerance is inversely associated with tolerance to other limiting factors [25].

Figure 5. Shade tolerance is inversely associated with tolerance to other limiting factors [25].

Ref. [26] conducted a life cycle analysis comparing land use across various energy generation systems, including renewable (wind, solar PV, geothermal, hydro, and biomass) and traditional sources (coal, natural gas, and nuclear). The study found that solar photovoltaics (PVs) require significantly less land over their life cycle compared to other renewable sources, particularly biomass, which has the highest land demand due to low energy efficiency and competition with agriculture. Among traditional sources, coal-based systems (especially surface mining) occupy more land than PVs, particularly in high-irradiance areas. Nuclear and biomass fuel cycles also consume substantial land, especially when considering indirect impacts such as ecosystem disruption and waste disposal. The authors used land occupation and transformation metrics, supported by the Ecoinvent database, to assess both direct and indirect land use associated with material and energy needs. Their analysis showed that PV systems disturb land far less than fossil fuel systems because they avoid mining, fuel transport, and reclamation efforts. Additionally, PV systems do not pose risks of water or soil contamination, unlike coal or nuclear plants. Overall, the study concluded that PVs have one of the lowest land-use impacts among energy sources, and their advantages become even more pronounced when environmental-side effects are taken into account. Further research is needed to evaluate these effects at the regional and global levels. It highlights that photovoltaic (PV) systems, based on Mult crystalline modules with 13% efficiency, require varying land areas depending on installation type and location. Ground-mounted PV systems in the U.S. Southwest (high solar insolation) use less land than rooftop systems or installations in lower insolation regions like Germany. Wind energy land use is also shown, with estimates based on capacity factors of 0.24 (California) and 0.2 (Germany). Ref. [27] investigated the shading and electrical performance of a photovoltaic (PV) array integrated into the roof of an east–west-oriented greenhouse with a Gothic-arch design. The PV array covered 12.9% of the roof area and served as a sustainable energy source for the greenhouse’s environmental control systems. Two layout configurations for the PV modules were compared: PV array (straight-line pattern) and PVC array (checkerboard pattern). The PV array cast static shadows on the same areas for four months, while the PVC array caused intermittent shadows that shifted throughout the day. The checkerboard arrangement provided a more even distribution of light over time, though it occasionally shaded larger parts of the greenhouse. Under clear sky conditions, both configurations produced similar amounts of electricity annually: PV array: 4.08 GJ/year and PVC array: 4.06 GJ/year. The total annual sunlight received inside the greenhouse was slightly higher with the PV array (5.31 GJ/m²) compared to the PVC array (5.03 GJ/m²). In conclusion, the checkerboard (PVC) layout offered better spatial light distribution, although with a minor reduction in total solar radiation and energy output. Overall, using PV modules in greenhouses is a viable solution for sustainable crop production, balancing energy generation with adequate light for plant growth, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. PV array mounted inside the roof of an east–west-oriented greenhouse. The 30 PV modules were arranged in a straight line (a) or checkerboard formation and the arranged in a semi-transparent PV roof configuration in (b) [27].

Figure 6. PV array mounted inside the roof of an east–west-oriented greenhouse. The 30 PV modules were arranged in a straight line (a) or checkerboard formation and the arranged in a semi-transparent PV roof configuration in (b) [27].

Ref. [28] highlighted the integration of solar energy into agriculture as a valuable and sustainable solution. Renewable energy, especially solar, can significantly reduce farm electricity and heating costs, provide an additional source of income, and enhance agricultural productivity. Solar, wind, and biomass are seen as key contributors to a clean and reliable energy future. The paper emphasizes that using renewable energy on farms not only displaces fossil fuel dependence but also reduces environmental pollution and supports global efforts against climate change. With modern advancements, farm machinery and production facilities are increasingly being adapted to utilize affordable and efficient renewable systems. The authors stress that renewable energy technologies must be clean, safe, and non-harmful to both humans and the environment to ensure sustainable agricultural development. Ref. [29] analyzed the shading impact of high-concentration photovoltaic (HCPV) panels compared to flat-plate PV systems for agricultural applications. Traditionally, areas beneath PV installations are paved to suppress vegetation, but the study emphasizes the potential of using uncovered PV land for dual agricultural use. The research explores the importance of panel spacing and tracker layout to reduce shading loss and maximize land-use efficiency. Multi-tracker CPV systems require more space to minimize inter-panel shading, making careful distribution essential. Additionally, shadow-induced mismatching in parallel PV connections and spectral mismatch losses, which depend on sun angle and shadow length, significantly affect overall system performance. The study validated its findings using annual shading loss data from a 30 kW HCPV system, demonstrating that optimized tracker arrangements can reduce shading losses and improve agricultural land co-use under PV installations. This study evaluates the space efficiency of PV fields by comparing measured and simulated data, focusing on the potential for agricultural use beneath PV arrays. It found that farmland using high-pedestal CPV systems offers about twice the cultivable area and receives nearly three times more solar energy than conventional setups. Additionally, the CPV system was shown to successfully power an entire plant factory, demonstrating its effectiveness for both energy generation and agricultural integration, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Bird view of the 42 kW high-pedestal system and irradiation under 14 kW high-pedestal panels [29].

Figure 7. Bird view of the 42 kW high-pedestal system and irradiation under 14 kW high-pedestal panels [29].

Ref. [30] conducted an economic feasibility study on integrating semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV) modules (with 50–75% light transparency) into greenhouse structures. Based on field research in Northern Sardinia, a prototype was designed for an east–west-oriented greenhouse roof. The study demonstrates that semi-transparent PV technology can replace traditional greenhouse glass panels, providing dual benefits: generating electricity and supporting crop cultivation. These PV systems are intended to meet on-site energy needs, reduce operational costs, and allow for revenue generation through electricity sales. Importantly, the authors argue that PV energy generation should be treated as a complementary and profitable component of commercial greenhouse operations, not as a separate venture, enhancing overall agricultural productivity and economic viability. Figure 8 illustrates different PV generator placement strategies, where 1 is solutions A and C—PV modules are installed on south-oriented (S) roofs, and 2 is solutions B and D—PV modules are equally distributed between the north (N) and south (S) roofs. Shading levels vary between 10% and 19%, depending on the type of PV module used.

Figure 8. PV module placement and shading configurations, (a) PV modules are installed on south-oriented roofs, (b) PV modules are equally distributed between the north and south roofs [30].

Figure 8. PV module placement and shading configurations, (a) PV modules are installed on south-oriented roofs, (b) PV modules are equally distributed between the north and south roofs [30].

The PV-powered farmer pump system operates using a solar panel array and a battery bank, which stores electricity to run the irrigation pump. The system features remote control via GSM technology, allowing the owner to turn the pump on or off using a mobile phone. Additionally, the water level is monitored and reported hourly through SMS, enabling efficient and flexible operation from any remote location based on the farmer’s needs [31]. Ref. [32] explored agrivoltaic (AV) systems, where solar panels and food crops share the same land to optimize land use. They compared two AV setups with different PV panel densities using light transmission modeling and crop productivity simulations under partial shade. Their findings show that combining electricity and food production is feasible, especially in regions with limited agricultural land. Enhancements such as mirrored PV backs can improve light for crops. The study emphasizes that the design optimization of AV systems is essential to balance electricity generation and crop yield effectively. A study using 3D-shadow analysis in AutoCAD determined that total solar fraction (TSF) in greenhouses is higher in winter due to the sun’s lower altitude. The TSF helps map solar radiation distribution inside the greenhouse, aiding in optimal placement of reflective and opaque surfaces, along with vents and windows [33]. A solar-powered water pumping system was developed using a DC-DC buck converter to boost current for a DC pump, avoiding batteries and inverters to reduce cost and maintenance. The system is suitable for mitigating energy crises in Bangladesh [34]. Photovoltaic greenhouses can be viable if system design includes energy efficiency, renewable integration, user safety, and ease of maintenance. Key technical challenges include optimizing greenhouse PV designs, increasing transparency of panels, and selecting compatible crops [35]. Shading from greenhouse PV arrays significantly reduced Welsh onion growth, especially under continuous shading (straight-line PVs). A checkerboard pattern caused intermittent shadows and less impact. Despite some plant growth reduction, the energy generated was useful for greenhouse control systems [36]. A solar-powered automatic irrigation system in Turkey was developed using BLDC motors, solar tracking, and RF modules. It included soil moisture sensors and a wireless management system for precise and efficient irrigation, tailored to the specific site’s needs [37]. A Solar Agro Sprayer (SAP) was created for rural areas, powered by solar arrays. It is lightweight, cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and enhances farmer safety by reducing exposure to harmful chemicals [38]. Flexible solar panels mounted on greenhouse roofs had a minimal negative impact on tomato quality or marketable yield. While some shading affected fruit size, all fruits remained commercially viable. High soil EC influenced fruit properties more significantly than shading [39]. A greenhouse-integrated PV system was analyzed for electricity generation. An artificial neural network was used to model and predict system performance. Results showed good accuracy, with annual normalized output at 8.25 kWh/m², validating the system’s efficiency [40]. It compared two solar-powered irrigation systems: one with PV panel cleaning and one without. Both used DC motors in directly coupled systems or with battery buffers. Panel cleaning significantly improved performance by ensuring consistent energy output [41]. Semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV) films were assessed for Mediterranean greenhouses. Although their low transmittance supports greenhouse thermal effects and electricity generation, it negatively affects plant growth due to reduced light in the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) range compared to traditional EVA films [42]. Photovoltaic-powered water pumping (PVP) systems were evaluated as a reliable irrigation solution for remote areas in Samara. These systems are ideal for small-scale irrigation (up to 3 hectares), offering low maintenance and eliminating the need for diesel fuel logistics [43]. Lettuce grown under partial shading from PV panels had increased leaf area and better radiation use efficiency, despite fewer leaves. Agrivoltaic systems, which combine crops and PVs, offer a sustainable alternative to converting cropland into solar farms by optimizing crop varieties for shaded conditions [44]. Agrivoltaic systems affect microclimate conditions by reducing temperature fluctuations and soil heat. Although crop growth is slightly slower at juvenile stages under PV panels, overall growth is not hindered. These systems may need minor changes in cultivation practices to adapt to altered light and temperature patterns [45]. Solar panel shading in agrivoltaic systems enhances water-use efficiency (WUE) by reducing evapotranspiration by 14–29% and prioritizing plant transpiration over evaporation. Shade reduces water demand, especially in crops under water stress, and rapid soil coverage by crops further boosts efficiency [46]. A hybrid power system using photovoltaic (PV) and fuel cell (FC) sources for water pumping was developed. A fuzzy logic controller-based MPPT system was implemented to maximize power extraction, validated through MATLAB/Simulink modeling for three-phase induction motor-driven pumps [47]. Ref. [48] designed a solar-powered drip irrigation system for sugarcane in dry, rainfed, and off-grid areas. The system proved cost-effective, mobile, and easy to install, supporting water-efficient farming in remote locations without electricity access [48]. An economic comparison of solar, diesel, and electric irrigation in Bangladesh revealed that solar irrigation is becoming a viable long-term solution. The study recommends policy support and pilot funding to encourage private sector investment in solar irrigation [49]. Lettuce grown under PV modules with light-diffusing films exhibited better growth and photosynthesis due to more uniform light distribution. The use of diffused rather than direct light improved plant morphology and yield across different seasons [50]. Prototype semi-transparent PV modules with spherical micro-cells were developed for greenhouse roofs. These allowed partial light transmission (39% eclipse), with higher cell density models generating more electricity. Though costly due to manual production, automation could reduce costs. PV1 modules yielded triple the output of PV2 [51]. A CMOS-based solar power-to-frequency converter with a calibration circuit is introduced for monitoring sunlight intensity in crop environments. The chip outputs digital signals suitable for various transmission methods (e.g., IR, radio, and ultrasonic). The calibration significantly improves accuracy, reducing linear error from 15.11% to 0.72%, making it a versatile solution for solar intensity sensing across different sensor types [52]. Imene Yahyaoui et al. (2015) [53] present a photovoltaic irrigation system with integrated energy management using a microcontroller and a fuzzy logic algorithm. The system manages PV panels, battery bank, and pump operation based on water demand and reservoir levels. It aims to optimize energy use, prevent battery over-discharge, and ensure reliable irrigation, tested via simulations on tomato crops using drip irrigation [53]. A solar-powered, wireless multi-sensor device has been developed for precision irrigation. It measures soil moisture, soil temperature, and environmental conditions. Data is processed by a microcontroller and transmitted wirelessly to a central unit. The moisture sensor is calibrated for accurate soil assessment, enabling better irrigation control [54]. Ref. [55] analyzed how solar radiation is distributed inside greenhouses with PV-integrated south-facing roofs. They highlight the importance of crop selection based on light distribution and the need for adapted crop management strategies, including nutrient delivery adjustments. They also warn about the effects of humidity and chemicals on PV module lifespan, offering insights for the dual-purpose design of PV greenhouses. Ref. [56] evaluated the impact of shading from PV modules on greenhouse crop performance. They find that the influence varies with sun position and roof design. The study critiques current legal thresholds (25–50% opaque cover) as empirically set rather than scientifically justified, emphasizing the need for detailed simulations and measurements to support optimal PV greenhouse construction. Ref. [57] structured his book into two key sections: The first is a regional overview, which analyzes the agricultural environment and overall sectoral performance across the Middle East. The second is country case studies, where it examines specific nations to illustrate regional differences and challenges. A central insight from the book is the significant variation among Middle Eastern countries in terms of the following:

• Availability of agricultural resources (land and water);
• Access to capital for development;
• The degree of need for agricultural development.

Despite these disparities, the region’s rural economies are closely interconnected, primarily through labor movement and, to a lesser extent, agricultural trade.

Ref. [58] evaluated the economic and practical feasibility of using unused land beneath large-scale PV farms for cultivating herbal plants. Their study demonstrated that integrating herbal farming with solar PV systems (agrivoltaics) is economically viable, with short payback periods and promising profit margins. Experimental cultivation showed that herbal plants grew well under the partial shade of PV panels, with minimal impact from reduced sunlight or PV radiation. The findings support agrivoltaics as a sustainable dual land-use strategy that optimizes space without compromising plant growth. The study by [59] uses a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model to simulate the microclimate inside photovoltaic (PV) greenhouses. It examines how solar radiation, airflow, temperature, and water vapor behave in two greenhouse types: asymmetric and Venlo, each fitted with PV panels. Two PV panel arrangements were tested, straight-line and checkerboard, to assess their impact on internal climate. The model also includes crop cover characteristics and crop–airflow interactions. The findings highlight how PV layout and greenhouse design influence light distribution and ventilation, which are crucial for both plant growth and energy efficiency. The geometry and mesh of the asymmetric greenhouse was equipped with straight-line photovoltaic panel arrangement, and the geometry and mesh of the Venlo greenhouse was equipped with straight-line photovoltaic panel arrangement.

Ref. [60] investigated the energy efficiency of a dynamic photovoltaic (PV) greenhouse under clear-sky summer conditions. The distinctive feature of this greenhouse is the longitudinal axis rotation of the PV panels, which allows for adjustable shading. The key aspects include the following:

• Rotating PV panels can be aligned based on site latitude and local climate, optimizing both solar energy capture and light availability for crops.
• The system enhances the energy balance by producing electricity while maintaining a favorable light environment for plant growth.
• Shading levels can be adjusted dynamically to suit different crop types and cultivation stages, improving agricultural productivity and energy efficiency simultaneously.

This study demonstrates how movable PV systems in greenhouses can better integrate solar energy generation with optimal crop conditions. Figure 9 shows the prototype of a dynamic photovoltaic greenhouse and energy flows examined in the calculation of the energy balance.

Figure 9. Prototype of dynamic PV greenhouse and energy flow analysis for energy balance [60].

Figure 9. Prototype of dynamic PV greenhouse and energy flow analysis for energy balance [60].

Ref. [61] introduced a semi-transparent photovoltaic (STM) module using 4800 spherical silicon micro-cells, designed for greenhouse integration. The module, sized to fit standard frames, allows light diffusion while generating electricity, balancing energy production with plant growth. Its semi-transparent design improves internal light distribution compared to traditional PV panels. The study marks a significant step toward efficient, sustainable PV-integrated agriculture. Figure 10 shows a configuration of sunlight and shading measurements. The semi-transparent PV module (shown as a pale blue plate) and pyranometers P1, P2, P3, and P4 were mounted on the greenhouse roof frames (a). P5 tracked the shadow of the module cell area. P3 was hidden by the greenhouse framework in the photograph (b), but it was positioned 180° to the opposite side of P2, directed downward. P4 was positioned behind the PV module at the margin of the PV cell area.

Figure 10. Sunlight and shading measurement setup with semi-transparent PV module and pyranometer positions on greenhouse roof [61].

Figure 10. Sunlight and shading measurement setup with semi-transparent PV module and pyranometer positions on greenhouse roof [61].

Ref. [62] conducted a comprehensive review of agrivoltaic systems, combining experimental data with a simulation model that integrates PVSyst and STICS to evaluate both energy generation and crop productivity. Their findings highlight that agrivoltaics can increase farm economic value by over 30% compared to conventional farming, especially with shade-tolerant crops. The study supports agrivoltaics as a sustainable and economically beneficial dual-use land strategy. Ref. [63] examined the co-location of large-scale solar infrastructure with agricultural practices, focusing on dryland regions such as northwestern India. Their key contributions are as follows:

• The study compares solar energy systems with aloe vera cultivation, analyzing land-use efficiency, water use, energy inputs/outputs, GHG emissions, and economic returns.
• Results suggest that co-locating solar panels and crops can enhance overall resource efficiency, offering environmental and economic co-benefits.
• Aloe vera, a drought-tolerant and economically viable crop, is shown to be compatible with dual-use solar farming systems in arid regions.

The paper supports the agrivoltaic approach as a sustainable solution for maximizing land productivity while addressing both energy and agricultural needs in drylands, as shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. Agrivoltaic systems by [63].

Figure 11. Agrivoltaic systems by [63].

Ref. [64] present a spatial analysis model (r.green.solar) to evaluate the trade-offs between installing ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) systems and preserving agricultural land in Italy. The model calculates potential energy production from solar PV installations and applies legal, technical, economic, and environmental constraints to estimate realistic outputs. Applied to a Mediterranean region, the study highlights how PV expansion can impact arable land use, emphasizing the need to balance energy goals with agricultural sustainability. The work serves as a decision-support tool for policymakers, helping to guide integrated land-use planning that aligns renewable energy development with food security and socio-economic priorities. Ref. [65] developed a novel algorithm to calculate indoor cumulative global solar radiation in photovoltaic (PV) greenhouses over specific time intervals. The method computes both direct and diffuse radiation at multiple observation points (OPs) inside the greenhouse, accounting for shading effects caused by PV panels. The PV modules were arranged in polygonal configurations, allowing the model to determine sun path overlaps from each OP. The algorithm was tested in a real PV greenhouse with 50% roof coverage by panels, and it effectively estimated light distribution patterns, providing a valuable tool for optimizing greenhouse design to balance crop growth and energy generation. Ref. [66] conducted a case study in China analyzing the economic and social performance of five integrated photovoltaic greenhouse (PVG) systems. The study demonstrated that PVGs can achieve strong economic returns, with the Annual Return on Investment (AROI) increasing by 11% (from ~9% to ~20%). The discounted payback period ranged from 4 to 8 years, depending on the type of crop cultivated. The findings highlight PVG systems as a viable and profitable approach for combining renewable energy generation with agricultural production, offering clear benefits in terms of sustainable development and rural income enhancement. Figure 12 illustrates the installation programs for the five basic PVGs.

Figure 12. Installation programs for the five basic PVGs [66].

Figure 12. Installation programs for the five basic PVGs [66].

Ref. [67] highlights the growing role of agrivoltaics in China, including applications in farming, greenhouses, photovoltaic breeding, wastewater purification, and water pumping systems. Driven by the need to reduce CO₂ emissions, agrivoltaics improve both electric power generation and agricultural land-use efficiency, ultimately enhancing the economic returns from both agriculture and energy production. Figure 13 shows a schematic diagram of this PV wastewater purification system.

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of a PV wastewater purification system [67].

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of a PV wastewater purification system [67].

Ref. [68] investigate the feasibility of implementing agrivoltaic systems on grape farms in India. Through a techno-economic analysis, the study evaluates the installation of PV systems between grape trellises, considering grapevine shade tolerance. It assesses energy generation per unit area and quantifies the economic benefits for farmers across various system design configurations. Ref. [69] examine the impact of rooftop-installed PV panels on greenhouse performance, focusing on both energy production and crop growth. Using lettuce cultivation as a case study, they compare greenhouses with fixed and sun-tracking PV systems to those without PV installations. The study evaluates how these setups affect plant development and energy yield, providing insights into the balance between agricultural productivity and solar energy generation. Ref. [70] evaluate the impact of integrating photovoltaics into greenhouses, focusing on the limitations of opaque PV panels, particularly their compatibility with crop production. The study proposes using semi-transparent dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) as an alternative for greenhouse glazing. The findings indicate that opaque PV-based greenhouses offer advantages over traditional glazing, including improved thermal regulation and increased edible biomass yield. Ref. [71] propose dynamic agrivoltaic systems using mobile, orientable photovoltaic panels (PVPs) to enhance land productivity. By adjusting panel orientation to manage solar radiation distribution, these systems optimize both crop growth and energy generation. The study compares fixed and dynamic systems under different orientation strategies, finding that dynamic systems significantly outperform stationary ones in overall land-use efficiency.

Ref. [72] review the progress of photovoltaic and wind energy deployment in the European Union following the Paris Agreement. The study analyzes data from official statistics, financial disclosures, and industry reports to assess growth trends and identify key policy drivers that have influenced the expansion of renewable energy across EU member states. Ref. [73] evaluate a prototype photovoltaic tunnel greenhouse, focusing on the dual objectives of promoting PV-based greenhouse adoption and assessing the impact of shading on crop growth. The study reveals that shading from PV panels can adversely affect agricultural productivity. It highlights the importance of optimizing panel configuration and shading percentage to balance energy generation with effective crop cultivation.

Ref. [74] explore the potential for agrivoltaic development in the Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA), a rapidly growing region in the U.S. The study analyzes the impact of half- and quarter-density PV panel configurations on agricultural land. Results indicate that deploying half-density PV systems on privately owned farms within APS and SRP service areas could generate 3.4 and 0.8 times the MSA’s total current energy demand, respectively, highlighting significant energy production potential without displacing agriculture. Ref. [75] investigate the integration of semi-transparent photovoltaic panels on greenhouse roofs, focusing on their dual role in power generation and tomato crop production. The study tests three different PV configurations to assess shading effects and finds that a balance can be achieved between energy output and crop yield. Additionally, an economic engineering analysis supports the feasibility and benefits of this integrated system. Figure 14 presents photos of the greenhouse (the first photo): shaded greenhouse (1) pyranometer (2), recording station (3), side ventilation system (4), the distance between the BIPV panels and plastic cover (5), and the micro-inverter’s cable. The second photo demonstrates the greenhouse diagram where the arrows are the solar radiation.

Figure 14. Photos and schematic of shaded greenhouse with BIPV setup [75].

Figure 14. Photos and schematic of shaded greenhouse with BIPV setup [75].

Ref. [76] assess the impact of photovoltaic panel shading on greenhouse microclimate and tomato production in a Canarian-type greenhouse. The study involves experimental analysis with 10% of the roof covered by flexible PV panels, testing two distribution patterns, checkerboard and straight-line, each covering 12.9% of the roof. Results highlight how PV layout affects internal climate conditions and crop quality, providing insights into optimal PV integration for greenhouse agriculture.

Ref. [77] develop a model to analyze water budgeting and crop growth for irrigated lettuce in agrivoltaic systems, focusing on different photovoltaic panel tilt angle control strategies. The study emphasizes stomatal conductance as a key factor influencing photosynthesis and water use under alternating sun and shade conditions caused by PV shading. This research serves as an initial step toward optimizing both PV operation and irrigation management in agrivoltaic setups. Figure 15 represents the installation of lettuces in the agrivoltaics plot of Lavalette (IRSTEA Montpellier, France). The red rectangles indicate the position of lettuce beds. The fixed agrivoltaic devices (Half Density: HD and Full Density: FD) are represented by green panel rows. The dynamic agrivoltaic devices (solar tracking: ST and controlled tracking: CT) are represented by blue panels. CP indicates the Control Plot.

Figure 15. Agrivoltaic lettuce plot layout with fixed and dynamic PV systems [77].

Figure 15. Agrivoltaic lettuce plot layout with fixed and dynamic PV systems [77].

Ref. [78] develop new functional units (FUs) for agrivoltaic systems to better evaluate land-use efficiency. The modified area-based FU combines PV-covered and cultivated land areas to reflect land-sharing benefits. The monetary-based FU incorporates the market values of crops and electricity generated, providing an economic perspective on agrivoltaic productivity as a multi-output system. Figure 16 exhibits the system boundary of the agrivoltaic system, and Figure 17 shows the arrangement of OPV modules in the experimental greenhouse for the present case study.

Figure 16. System boundary of the agrivoltaic case study [78].

Figure 16. System boundary of the agrivoltaic case study [78].

Figure 17. OPV module layout in the experimental greenhouse of the case study [78].

Figure 17. OPV module layout in the experimental greenhouse of the case study [78].

Ref. [79] introduce a new solar allocation method for life cycle assessment (LCA) to better allocate CO₂ emissions in agrivoltaic systems. The method calculates partitioning based on the ratio of PV-covered active areas to total greenhouse surface and light transmittance. The study compares this approach to traditional allocation methods (system expansion and economic allocation) using a Japanese organic photovoltaic greenhouse as a case study, highlighting differences in LC-CO₂ emission results. Figure 18 illustrates the system boundaries of the agrivoltaic system.

Figure 18. System boundaries of the agrivoltaic system [79].

Figure 18. System boundaries of the agrivoltaic system [79].

Ref. [80] quantified the environmental impacts of photovoltaic panels on an unirrigated pasture prone to water stress. Conducted at the Rabbit Hills agrivoltaic solar arrays in Oregon, the research measures changes in microclimate, soil moisture (using neutron probes), water use, and biomass productivity over two years. Results demonstrate that PV panels significantly influence soil moisture retention, microclimatic conditions, and water-use efficiency, benefiting crop resilience under water-limited conditions. Figure 19 presents (a) an aerial photo of the 35th Street agrivoltaic solar array, Oregon State University Corvallis campus (this photo is taken in winter and the shadow pattern is different from the measurements which were taken in summer) Copyright: Oregon State University, (b) the solar panel setup, (c) the control area setup, (d) shade zones in the solar panel, and (e) a schematic drawing of shade zones (H is object height and L is shadow length).

Figure 19. Views and schematic of agrivoltaic setup and shading zones at OSU [80].

Figure 19. Views and schematic of agrivoltaic setup and shading zones at OSU [80].

Ref. [81] discusses the efficient use of greenhouses as a land-sharing solution in urban areas to combine solar energy production with agriculture. The paper reviews various solar energy applications in agriculture, including irrigation, product drying, and ventilation, highlighting their role in enhancing sustainability and resource efficiency. They present the use of solar energy in agriculture, solar photovoltaic panels providing green energy for agricultural growth, and a sample of a solar greenhouse.

Ref. [82] review agrivoltaic applications in China, highlighting innovations such as PV-covered greenhouses, solar-powered water pumping, and purification. The study focuses on the agrivoltaic potential of grape farms in Xinjiang, demonstrating dual benefits, increased electric power generation and additional income from grid-connected PV systems, while maintaining unaffected grape crop production. They illustrate the side-view layout of solar modules positioned between grape trellises of approximately equal height. The parameters include the following: X distance between two solar modules, Z distance between a module and the adjacent trellis, W trellis height, T vertical gap from ground to the bottom of the module, Y module length, and θ module tilt angle.

Ref. [83] develop simulation models to analyze the energy performance of photovoltaic greenhouses with varying PV roof coverage densities (high: 50%, low: 33%, and 25%) and sun-tracking functionalities. Using climate data from Delft, Netherlands, the study evaluates four sun-tracking configurations and finds that high-density PV installations combined with no-shading sun-tracking generate more power than conventional quasi-perpendicular tracking systems. Ref. [84] examined the technical potential of utility-scale solar PV projects (>1 MW) in Évora, Portugal, considering topography and spatial planning policies. Through scenario analysis of PV farming, the study highlights the importance of spatial planning regulations and sustainable local energy action plans to optimize both solar power generation and agricultural land use. Ref. [85] analyze the energy performance and economics of greenhouses with semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) cladding. Their study finds that currently, STPV cladding is not economically justified due to shading-induced increased lighting costs. However, future projections suggest STPV cladding could become economically viable as life cycle costs decrease and electricity generation efficiency improves. Ref. [86] reviewed and focused on energy-saving strategies to reduce heating costs in conventional greenhouses, particularly through optimal design of PV-cladded roofs. Their study emphasizes managing indoor microclimates efficiently, noting that local climate and site-specific factors like greenhouse shape and orientation critically influence energy performance. The work contributes valuable insights for sustainable agrivoltaic system design. Ref. [87] evaluated agrivoltaic systems with stilt-mounted PV panels, focusing on corn, a shade-intolerant crop. They addressed whether corn could grow effectively under PV shading and if stilt-mounted systems could balance crop yield with clean energy production. The findings support that such systems can mitigate the typical trade-off, enabling simultaneous food and energy generation even for shade-sensitive crops. Figure 20 shows three types of agrivoltaic systems: (a) crop cultivation between PV panels, (b) a photovoltaic greenhouse, (c) a stilt-mounted PV system, and (d) PV module configurations at the agrivoltaic experimental farm.

Figure 20. Agrivoltaic system types and PV configurations at experimental farm. (a) using the space between photovoltaic (PV) panels for crops, (b) a PV greenhouse, (c) a stilt-mounted system and (d) PV module configurations at the agrivoltaic experimental farm [87].

Figure 20. Agrivoltaic system types and PV configurations at experimental farm. (a) using the space between photovoltaic (PV) panels for crops, (b) a PV greenhouse, (c) a stilt-mounted system and (d) PV module configurations at the agrivoltaic experimental farm [87].

Ref. [88] paper investigates the microclimate dynamics of transparent PV-based greenhouses using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The study demonstrates the model’s capability to predict internal temperature variations and surface heat transfer coefficients on greenhouse sidewalls, aiding in better design and climate management of PV-integrated greenhouses. Ref. [89] investigate the use of semi-transparent, flexible organic photovoltaic (OPV) modules as greenhouse cladding to provide shading while generating electricity. The OPV modules not only contribute to power production but also help reduce indoor heat, thereby protecting crops and improving greenhouse microclimate conditions. Ref. [90] assess the sector-wide social impact of agrivoltaic system (AVS) dissemination policies in Japan using social scoping methods. They find that AVSs positively affect stakeholders and contribute to enhanced energy security, especially when integrated with specific supporting technologies. In another study by [91] developed and implemented a thermal and radiation simulation model for greenhouses with PV-cladded roofs covering 25% of the roof area. The study evaluates energy production and finds that weekly solar radiation inside the greenhouse remains comparable to conventional designs. The combined 3D radiation and thermal models offer useful tools for optimizing the performance of photovoltaic-integrated greenhouses (PVIGs). Figure 21 shows (a) the greenhouse structure and (b) three different PV layouts installed on its roof.

Figure 21. Greenhouse structure and PV layout configuration [91].

Figure 21. Greenhouse structure and PV layout configuration [91].

Ref. [92] explore the use of photovoltaic panels as shading structures for livestock. They highlight that PV panels provide dual benefits: generating clean electricity and offering effective shade that reduces heat stress on animals. The research compares PV shading with traditional 80% blockage cloth shade materials, showing that PV panels can enhance livestock welfare while delivering environmental and farming advantages.

Ref. [93] focus on optimizing the row density of fixed-tilt bifacial PV arrays in agrivoltaic systems to balance crop growth and energy production. They analyze the impact of tilt angle and panel orientation (east/west vs. north/south) on energy yield and shading effects for various seasonal crops. The research highlights how panel density, elevation, and tilt influence both electricity generation and crop performance, providing insights for maximizing food–energy productivity. Figure 22 presents a schematic of a vertically mounted bifacial PV farm with east/west orientation.

Figure 22. Schematic of E/W-oriented vertical bifacial PV farm [93].

Figure 22. Schematic of E/W-oriented vertical bifacial PV farm [93].

Ref. [94] review and explore emerging solar energy technologies integrated into agriculture to promote sustainability and environmental protection. They highlight global advancements in dual-use farming systems, where photovoltaic (PV) panels are used for both food production and electricity generation on the same land. The study emphasizes the role of agrivoltaics in enhancing energy efficiency, sustainable farming, and reducing the ecological footprint of agricultural practices. Ref. [95] systematically assess the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement (PA) by mapping the existing literature. They use three methodological steps: categorizing studies based on mechanisms (e.g., mitigation and adaptation), conducting content analysis to identify common drivers and barriers to effectiveness, and offering recommendations. The review finds a strong focus on mitigation, while adaptation and capacity building remain underexplored. The authors highlight key challenges and suggest strategies to enhance the PA’s overall impact [96] assess the agricultural sustainability of various types of photovoltaic greenhouses (PVGs) in southern Europe. They identify existing PVG structures and analyze their agricultural yield under different photovoltaic roof coverage ratios (PVRs) ranging from 25% to 100%. The research highlights the importance of crop species, transplanting periods, and agricultural practices in determining optimal PVG design. It provides guidance on sustainable PVG configurations based on light requirements and crop yield potential. Ref. [97] evaluate the impact of shading tomato crops in tunnel greenhouses using flexible, semi-transparent organic photovoltaic (OPV) modules. Experiments were conducted over two summer seasons in tunnels covered with diffuse polyethylene sheets. The results showed that OPV shading did not significantly alter midday air temperature or humidity compared to conventional shaded and unshaded tunnels, suggesting that OPV integration maintains a stable microclimate while enabling electricity generation. Ref. [98] explore the integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems with grape cultivation, using a 1300 × 520 mm PV module to create a 30% shading rate across six land sections, three with PV panels and three without. Transparent PV modules demonstrated the highest energy output (25.7 MWh), outperforming both normal and bifacial panels. The research combines PV performance with agricultural data using ICT, highlighting the potential of agrivoltaic systems to optimize both crop production and energy generation. Figure 23 illustrates a farm-based photovoltaic power system combined with a rain-protection solar structure in a grape farm and the structure of PV power.

Figure 23. Farm-based PV system and rain-protection structure in a grape farm [98].

Figure 23. Farm-based PV system and rain-protection structure in a grape farm [98].

Ref. [99] evaluate the feasibility of a blind-type photovoltaic (PV) roof-shade system using rotating semi-transparent PV blades for greenhouse applications. The system is designed to regulate sunlight penetration while simultaneously generating electricity. Annual performance analysis shows that the energy generated is sufficient to operate the PV blinds, supporting both crop growth and renewable energy production. This dual-purpose system enhances greenhouse energy autonomy and solar utilization efficiency. Figure 24 shows a model greenhouse fitted with PV blinds in closed (θ = 0°) and open (θ = 90°) positions, adjusted based on irradiance levels. The greenhouse glass roof can accommodate up to 198 neatly arranged PV modules.

Figure 24. Model greenhouse with adjustable PV blinds and 198 modules [99].

Figure 24. Model greenhouse with adjustable PV blinds and 198 modules [99].

Ref. [100] present in a case study an advanced energy-efficient greenhouse in the Mediterranean climate, developed at the Smart Agro-Manufacturing Laboratory (SamLab) in Albenga, Italy. Using the Energy Plus dynamic simulation model, the study integrates multiple sustainable strategies, including semi-transparent PV-cladded roofs, shading/reflecting systems, operable windows for natural ventilation, and an HVAC system powered by a ground-coupled heat pump. The study demonstrates significant energy savings and improved environmental control for sustainable greenhouse cultivation. Ref. [101] model the environmental and economic performance of an innovative agrivoltaic system called (Agrovoltaico^®), built on tensile structures in Italy’s Po Valley. The findings show that these systems have environmental impacts comparable to traditional PV systems while offering added advantages such as reduced land occupation and stabilized crop production. These benefits are especially relevant in the context of increasing land-use pressure and climate change, making Agrovoltaico^® a promising solution for sustainable energy planning.

Ref. [102] review explores recent technological advances in achieving net-zero energy greenhouses through the integration of renewable energy systems. They focus on the application of solar thermal, photovoltaic (PV), photovoltaic–thermal (PVT), geothermal, and biomass energy sources. The study highlights solar energy as the most promising solution for meeting both thermal and electrical demands in greenhouses and evaluates how these systems contribute to energy savings by increasing internal heat, thus enhancing sustainability in greenhouse farming. Ref. [103] compare traditional north/south-oriented tilted monofacial photovoltaic farms with vertical east/west-oriented bifacial agrivoltaic (AV) systems. Through computational modeling, the authors evaluate radiation interception on panels and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) transmission to crops. The results highlight the potential advantages and trade-offs of vertical bifacial configurations in agrivoltaics, offering insights into optimizing light distribution for both energy production and crop growth efficiency. Ref. [104] investigate the impact of agrivoltaic (AV) systems on the growth, yield, and chemical composition of celeriac, a root vegetable commonly grown in Central Europe. Conducted as a two-year organic on-farm experiment, the research compares celeriac cultivated under partial shading from AV panels versus full sun conditions. The findings indicate that AV systems are well-suited for celeriac cultivation, with partial shading affecting microclimate and chemical composition, ultimately influencing crop quality positively.

Ref. [105] explore industry perspectives on agrivoltaics, emphasizing their dual role in generating electricity and cultivating crops simultaneously. They highlight market, community, and socio-political aspects influencing agrivoltaic adoption. The study concludes that agrivoltaic systems have strong economic justification and growing market potential. Ref. [106] use computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to analyze the shading effects of south-oriented photovoltaic (PV) panels on the microclimate inside a moon-span greenhouse. They evaluate how the PV roof influences factors like solar radiation distribution, wind velocity, relative humidity, and temperature during both summer and winter. The impact on plant growth and indoor climate dynamics is experimentally and computationally assessed. Ref. [107] critically review the design and assessment of agrivoltaic (APV) systems, focusing on both spatial and technological aspects. They introduce a novel perspective by conceptualizing APV systems as three-dimensional landscape patterns, aiming to better understand the relationship between energy production and land use. The work also explores how such designs can create multifunctional spaces, supporting sustainability and new landscape-related purposes beyond traditional energy and agriculture uses. Ref. [108] introduce a new economic assessment framework called FEADPLUS, based on neoclassical economic theory, to evaluate the potential benefits and adoption of dual land-use systems, specifically agrivoltaics. The method analyzes the annual profitability and breaks down key economic factors that justify the viability of agrivoltaic systems, providing a structured approach to assess their economic feasibility and adoption potential. Ref. [109] investigate the design factors and performance metrics of agrivoltaic (APV) systems. The results demonstrate that APV systems are economically viable and support sustainable energy–food production. Additionally, APVs help conserve large land areas, which is crucial for accommodating population growth. Ref. [110] evaluates the potential for agrivoltaic systems in Turkey, highlighting the country’s favorable geographic conditions for combining solar energy and agriculture. Using PVsyst software, the solar path and system performance were simulated, demonstrating Turkey’s strong suitability for agrivoltaic farming based on its agricultural production and solar resource. Ref. [111] investigate the economic viability of crop production under partial shade created by sun-tracking solar photovoltaic panels. Experiments with crops like kale, chard, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, and spinach demonstrated that these crops perform well under such conditions, with sun-tracker positioning influencing growth positively. The paper concludes that successful agrivoltaic system development requires careful design of PV arrangements, sun-tracking algorithms, and crop selection.

Ref. [112] analyze the impact of agrivoltaic systems on rice crop yield in Japan. They evaluate how factors like fertilizer use, temperature, solar radiation, and especially shading from photovoltaic panels installed above the rice fields, affect rice growth and productivity. The findings provide insights into optimizing agrivoltaic designs to balance energy generation and rice yield. Ref. [113] presents the design and implementation of the Parametric Open-Source Cold-Frame Agrivoltaic System (POSCAS), a versatile, partially transparent solar PV system. The POSCAS functions both as a traditional cold frame and an automated greenhouse, featuring an embedded PV roof connected to a microinverter for power generation. Designed as open-source hardware under the CERN Open Hardware License, the POSCAS enables experimental testing of agricultural and energy production simultaneously. Ref. [114] review the implementation of agrivoltaics in India as a climate-smart agriculture (CSA) strategy using a SWOT analysis framework. The study highlights key strengths such as rural electrification, water conservation, improved crop yields, sustainable income generation, and reduced pesticide use. This work emphasizes agrivoltaics’ potential to support climate resilience and sustainable farming practices for Indian farmers. Ref. [115] explore the combined land use of solar infrastructure and agriculture in tropical regions, focusing on socio-economic and environmental co-benefits. The paper discusses land efficiency, energy production, greenhouse gas emission reductions, and economic feasibility of off-grid solar PV systems integrated with high-value crop cultivation. The study finds that small-scale dual land-use systems can be economically viable under specific configurations, offering benefits such as rural electrification, replacement of diesel generators, and enhanced energy access for farming activities. Ref. [116] investigate the efficiency improvement of ground-mounted solar power generation in an agrivoltaic system by cultivating bok choy (a shade-tolerant crop) under the PV panels. The study compares both crop growth and solar power output with control conditions. Results suggest that integrating shade-tolerant crops like bok choy under solar panels can enhance the overall efficiency of agrivoltaic systems by optimizing land use and maintaining crop yield alongside power generation. Figure 25 shows the 25 kW AC PV farm at adiCET, along with the experimental layout and crop production plots.

Figure 25. 25 kW PV farm and crop experiment layout at adiCET [116].

Figure 25. 25 kW PV farm and crop experiment layout at adiCET [116].

Ref. [117] focus on 3D thermal modeling of a vertical bifacial photovoltaic module within an agrivoltaic system. Using SolidWorks Flow Simulation^® for computational fluid dynamics (CFD), they analyze temperature distribution and energy performance of the PV module. The study uses data from Sweden’s first experimental agrivoltaic system to evaluate thermal effects and optimize energy output in agrivoltaic applications. Ref. [118] introduce a novel metric called the Light Productivity Factor (LPF) to optimize bifacial photovoltaic (PV) array configurations tailored to specific crops in agrivoltaic systems. This metric assesses the efficiency of irradiance sharing between crops and PV panels, helping identify optimal design parameters such as array density, panel orientation, and single-axis tracking. The approach focuses on matching the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) requirements of crops to enhance both energy production and crop growth simultaneously. Figure 26 compares modeling frameworks based on PAR, LER, and LPF approaches. Yellow and blue blocks highlight the differences between the standard LER method and the LPF approach applied in this study.

Figure 26. Comparison of PAR, LER, and LPF modeling approaches [118].

Figure 26. Comparison of PAR, LER, and LPF modeling approaches [118].

The study by [119] found that 81.8% of people are more likely to support solar projects if they include agriculture, showing that agrivoltaics can boost public acceptance. Support increases when projects provide economic benefits, protect local interests, avoid public land, and ensure fair benefit sharing. Addressing community concerns is key to successful agrivoltaic deployment. The study by [120] explores bifacial photovoltaic integration in agrivoltaic (APV) systems to enhance land productivity and energy generation. Using multi-scale modeling, three APV array topologies were tested in Boston’s climate: S-N facing, E-W wings, and E-W vertical. The E-W wings design offered the best balance between crop shading and power output. Integrating this layout with customized bifacial modules for blueberry cultivation increased land productivity by 50%, though electrical yield dropped by 33% compared to conventional systems. The study shows that optimized APV design enables sustainable dual land use across diverse climates. Ref. [121] highlight agrivoltaics as a key strategy for decarbonization and sustainable land use, addressing growing land pressure from a utility-scale solar perspective. They systematically review how agrivoltaics can deliver multiple ecosystem services aligned with UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including energy and economic benefits, food and livestock production, biodiversity conservation, and climate regulation (e.g., carbon, water, and soil). The study identifies current scientific knowledge, challenges, and research gaps, emphasizing the potential of agrivoltaics to support both renewable energy goals and ecosystem sustainability. Ref. [122] systematic review analyzes 98 studies on agrivoltaic systems as a solution to land competition between solar energy and agriculture. While most research focuses on engineering aspects and PV configurations, there is a lack of studies on financial performance and large-scale (>1 MW) agrivoltaics, especially those integrating livestock grazing. This gap is significant, as regions best suited for solar power often rely heavily on grazing. The study highlights the need for more research on economic models and scaling agrivoltaics to support climate goals without compromising food production. Giri and Mohanty conducted an experimental study in Odisha, India, using a portable 0.675 kWp agrivoltaic system to assess its impact on land productivity and farmer income. The system supported turmeric farming under solar panels and showed strong performance indicators: Land Equivalent Ratio: 1.73, benefit–cost ratio: 1.71, and payback period: 9.49 years. The setup reduced temperatures by 1–1.5 °C, enhancing energy output, and operated successfully with a dual DC micro-grid. The study confirms agrivoltaics as a viable solution for energy and food security in climate-affected regions like India, as shown in Figure 27 [123]. In another study, they show that a 6 kWp double row agrivoltaic system in India can enhance both energy and food security, with strong returns: annual revenue: USD 2308.9, Land Equivalent Ratio: 1.42, and payback: 7.6 years. Turmeric farming under the system had a benefit–cost ratio of 1.86, supporting its socio-economic viability. Agrivoltaics are key to addressing land use and boosting rural livelihoods [124,125].

Figure 27. The system and schematic design of on-grid AVS [124,125].

Figure 27. The system and schematic design of on-grid AVS [124,125].

Ref. [126] review the rise in agrivoltaic systems, which combine crop production with solar energy to address land-use competition. Global capacity grew from 5 MW in 2012 to 2.8 GW in 2020. While most systems use opaque PV modules, these can negatively affect crops by altering the microclimate. Semi-transparent PV (STPV) modules offer a solution by allowing light through for crops while generating electricity. Among STPV types, crystalline silicon (c-Si) is most used due to its low cost, high efficiency, and stability. Organic PVs (OPVs) and DSSCs enable wavelength-selective transparency, supporting photosynthesis. CPVs and LSCs also show promise. However, further research is needed to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and understand crop responses for broader adoption. Figure 28 shows a cross-sectional view of a typical agrivoltaic system installed in an open field.

Figure 28. Cross-section of an open-field agrivoltaic system [126].

Figure 28. Cross-section of an open-field agrivoltaic system [126].

Ref. [127] assessed the large-scale integration of agrivoltaics in rural Japan using linear programming to optimize power grid scenarios. They compared the impacts of deploying agrivoltaics on rice paddies versus other cultivated land (35% of total farmland). Results showed that rice paddies are more effective due to better crop distribution and proximity to high-demand areas. Combining agrivoltaics with battery storage and expanded transmission lines proved most efficient, minimizing power system costs and CO₂ emissions. The study highlights the need for spatial planning to stabilize the grid and support renewable energy integration. Ref. [128] explored two agrivoltaic models: retrofitting crops under existing PV systems and purpose-built co-production setups. Both boost energy efficiency, land use, and farmer income, supporting sustainability. It highlights a gap in research on retrofitting existing PV sites and offers practical guidance for optimizing land use and policymaking.

Agrivoltaics offer a sustainable solution to the growing competition between agriculture and renewable energy for land use. By combining crop cultivation and solar power generation on the same land, agrivoltaics can enhance land-use efficiency and reduce reliance on fossil fuels.

In drought-prone regions like the Middle East, agrivoltaics can mitigate the negative effects of heat and water stress on crops by providing partial shading, which improves microclimatic conditions and stabilizes yields. While some yield loss may occur under shaded conditions, the system enhances long-term agricultural resilience and supports food and energy security. Policy decisions will ultimately guide the balance between crop productivity and energy output in these systems. Figure 29 shows various types of agrivoltaic systems: (a) vertical panels on grassland, allowing farming between rows (Donaueschingen-Aasen, Germany; credit: Next2Sun), (b) elevated panels on arable land, enabling farming underneath (Herdwangen-Schönach, Germany; credit: BayWa r.e.), (c) ground-mounted panels on arable land with cultivation between rows (Althegnenberg, Germany; credit: Matthias Baumgärtner Videofotografie/ÖKO-HAUS), and (d) elevated panels in orchards, allowing crop growth below (Ahrweiler, Germany; credit: Fraunhofer ISE) [129].

Figure 29. Types of agrivoltaic systems [129].

Figure 29. Types of agrivoltaic systems [129].

A comprehensive study review by [130] on agriphotovoltaics (APVs) refers to the dual use of land for agriculture and solar PV energy generation. Although the concept emerged two decades ago, its large-scale implementation is more recent. APVs support United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7 and 11 by enabling renewable energy production without compromising food supply. This review highlights current tools, experimental results, and PV technologies for APV systems. It identifies the need for more accurate forecasting tools and emphasizes that PV design should match crop shading tolerance. Stronger collaboration among researchers, land users, and policymakers is essential to expand APVs and support additional SDGs, including 5, 8, 9, 12, and 15. Figure 30 illustrates a schematic of an APV system illustrating panel spacing that enables both crop cultivation and the movement of farming equipment between rows and a schematic overview of various agriphotovoltaic (APV) approaches, the types of PV panels suitable for each, and associated crop production activities. Figure 31 demonstrates agriphotovoltaic applications worldwide.

Figure 30. APV design layout and types [130].

Figure 30. APV design layout and types [130].

Ref. [131] examine circularity and landscape experience in agrivoltaic systems. They find that most projects support regional economies but give little attention to landscape design. Dutch cases often have low visibility and accessibility. The study calls for better integration of circular practices and landscape features to boost sustainability and public acceptance. Grubbs proposed that as global demand for food, energy, and water rises, land-use competition intensifies. In the U.S., both agriculture and solar energy are adopting densification strategies, but often operate separately, limiting efficiency. This study proposes an integrated agrivoltaic system that combines food and energy production using smart solar tracking strategies. By identifying critical crop growth periods, the system switches to anti-tracking (reducing shading) during those times and returns to solar tracking otherwise. This approach sacrifices some energy output during peak growth but maintains 86.71% annual power generation, while improving crop yield and overall land productivity. The solution offers a feasible model for large-scale agrivoltaic adoption using existing technologies [132].

Figure 31. Agriphotovoltaic applications worldwide [130].

Figure 31. Agriphotovoltaic applications worldwide [130].

Ref. [133] study presents a modeling framework to evaluate the economic performance of agrivoltaic (AV) systems compared to traditional ground-mounted PVs (GMPVs). It introduces a simple criterion linking land preservation costs with combined food–energy profits. Using case studies with high- and low-value crops, the research analyzes the impact of bifacial PV module orientation (north/south vs. east/west) and array density. Key findings show that AVs become economically feasible with high-value crops, reduced module density (<60%), and a high module-to-land cost ratio (ML > 25). For low ML, higher feed-in tariffs (FITs) or higher module density may be required. The model helps stakeholders optimize AV design and profitability based on site-specific conditions. Figure 32 demonstrates (a) a vertical east–west (E/W)-oriented bifacial agrivoltaic (AV) system; (b) a north–south (N/S)-oriented AV system; and (c) a conventional ground-mounted photovoltaic (GMPV) system showing labeled pitch and height.

Figure 32. AV configurations and GMPV reference [133].

Figure 32. AV configurations and GMPV reference [133].

This UK-based study evaluates crop-based agrivoltaic (AV) systems, comparing overhead-tilted and vertical PV setups with traditional farming and ground-mounted solar. The results show that AV systems are technically and economically viable, with Land Equivalent Ratios (LERs) up to 1.52 and average profit increases of 210%. Despite higher installation costs, tilted AV systems yield strong net present values, proving more profitable and land-efficient across most UK regions [134]. Ref. [135]’s study highlights agrivoltaics as a synergistic solution that integrates photovoltaic (PV) energy generation with agriculture to optimize food, energy, and water production while preserving ecosystems. It focuses on concentrator photovoltaics (CPVs), which offer high efficiency and advanced spectral control, making them well-suited for photosynthesis-compatible energy generation. Two shading-mitigation strategies are discussed: (1) dichroic film-coated parabolic glass that reflects NIR to PV cells and transmits PAR to crops and (2) sun-tracking louvers or Fresnel lenses that focus sunlight on energy while diffusing light for plant growth. Despite slow CPV adoption due to cost, its agricultural potential could revive interest, especially with further research on spectral separation materials and plant responses. Ref. [136] present a bibliometric analysis of agrivoltaic (AV) research using SCOPUS-indexed publications. The study reviews 121 articles covering economic assessments, crop and livestock applications, photovoltaic greenhouses, and open-field AV systems. Most studies have been published in the last three years, highlighting agrivoltaics as an emerging field. The authors note a lack of standardized evaluation methods and emphasize that specialized AV conferences, especially in the USA and China, are key sources for current developments. Recent research trends focus mainly on short-term outcomes and agricultural integration. Figure 33 is a comparative illustration of agrivoltaic and conventional photovoltaic (PV) systems installed on the same agricultural land.

Figure 33. Agrivoltaic vs. PV systems [136].

Figure 33. Agrivoltaic vs. PV systems [136].

Ref. [137] proposed an agrivoltaic system for the UAE that enables simultaneous food, water, and energy production, using semi-transparent PV panels to allow crop growth beneath solar arrays. This dual-use approach enhances land efficiency, improves crop yield, reduces dust on panels, and boosts energy performance, crucial in the UAE’s arid climate. Recommendations include using PVs as livestock shade, adopting elevated and transparent panels for vegetables, deploying solar trees for water pumping, and establishing agrivoltaic date farms. An innovative example of sustainable agri-energy integration in the UAE is the solar-powered aquaponics system at Sharjah Men’s Campus. Housed within a Mobile Learning Unit (MLU), the system grows fish and plants in a closed-loop cycle where fish waste nourishes the plants, and plants purify the water. This soil-free, water-efficient method addresses challenges like desertification and supports food security. The system is powered entirely by solar energy, with 6 PV modules dedicated to LED lighting and 13 to water pumping. The total installation area is 53 m², matching the MLU’s rooftop. This project showcases how agrivoltaic concepts can support sustainable farming and renewable energy goals in arid regions, much like those by Hassan et al. 2023 and 2024 [138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145]. Ref. [146] explain that a study on agrivoltaics (AVs) combines solar PV with agriculture to boost land-use efficiency and address food–energy demands. This review demonstrates that AVs can protect crops, conserve water, and enhance solar efficiency, although shading effects vary by crop and climate. Most AV projects are in early stages, with gaps in design standards, economic analysis, and long-term impacts. The authors call for site-specific designs, interdisciplinary research, supportive policies, and new PV technologies, especially for arid regions, to advance AV adoption and sustainability. Ref. [147] in a comprehensive review, examine agrivoltaic systems (AVSs) that combine solar power generation with crop cultivation to optimize land use and support sustainability goals. AVSs improve land and water efficiency, increase crop yields, and generate clean energy, benefiting farmers through dual income and rural job creation. Despite high initial costs and challenges like crop shading and regulatory barriers, AVSs can boost overall economic returns by up to 56%. Success depends on site-specific design, technology choice, and supportive policies promoting equity and social acceptance. The study highlights AVSs as a promising solution for food security, climate action, and clean energy, recommending innovation and collaboration for future development. Figure 34 illustrates the classification of AVSs based on the mounting methods of PV panels and Various Potential Contributions of an AVS.

Figure 34. (a): AVS mounting classification and (b): Various Potential Contributions of an AVS [147].

Figure 34. (a): AVS mounting classification and (b): Various Potential Contributions of an AVS [147].

Ref. [148] analyze the economic feasibility of implementing agrivoltaics (AVs) for tomato farming in Botswana. The study compares three scenarios: traditional tomato farming (control), low-density AVs, and high-density AVs. While agrivoltaic setups reduce tomato yield by at least 16%, the electricity generated from the PV panels offsets this loss. The farm uses solar-powered irrigation in the AV cases, replacing diesel generators in traditional farming.

Economic analysis shows that the payback period for the low-density and high-density AV systems is about 3 and 3.6 years, respectively, much shorter than the 17.5 years for conventional farming. Net present value (NPV) calculations over 10 years indicate that agrivoltaic setups are profitable, while traditional farming is not. Overall, the study concludes that investing in agrivoltaics for tomato cultivation offers significant financial benefits and justifies adoption in Botswana’s agricultural sector. Figure 35 shows a common use of agrivoltaic farms.

Figure 35. Typical uses of agrivoltaic farms [148].

Figure 35. Typical uses of agrivoltaic farms [148].

Ref. [149] review how different agrivoltaic system (AVS) designs, static, full-sun tracking, and agronomic tracking, affect fruit crop growth and solar energy generation. AVSs modify microclimates (light, temperature, and humidity), impacting fruit yield and quality. A 30% shading threshold is advised to avoid negative effects on crop physiology and productivity. The study emphasizes the need for further research, especially in semi-arid regions, and standardized metrics to improve AVS design and adoption. Overall, AVSs offer a sustainable path for integrating fruit farming with renewable energy. Figure 36 is a schematic illustration of an innovative agrivoltaic system designed for fruit crop cultivation.

Figure 36. Agrivoltaic system for fruit crops [149].

Figure 36. Agrivoltaic system for fruit crops [149].

Agrivoltaic systems in Jordan could address energy and water scarcity by combining solar power with agriculture. The study finds that 9.5% of Jordan’s land is AV-suitable. Covering half of the tomato fields with PV panels could meet 50% of the renewable energy target and save up to 8.6% of the national water budget. Further research on economic viability is needed [150].

Ref. [151] compare three photovoltaic (PV) system types, floating, agrivoltaic, and ground-mounted, focusing on efficiency, cost, and environmental impact. Floating PV systems optimize land use by utilizing water surfaces and can boost energy output. Agrivoltaics address land-use conflicts by combining solar power with agriculture. The paper evaluates the performance, economics, and environmental benefits of each system, discusses PV degradation and failure detection, and offers recommendations to enhance design, deployment, and long-term sustainability. The study aims to guide future improvements in efficient and eco-friendly solar energy technologies. Ref. [152] explore agrivoltaics as a sustainable strategy to improve food security under water scarcity. By growing chicory plants under full-sun and shaded conditions simulating PV panel coverage, and using high and low water supply regimes, the research found that agrivoltaic shading reduces crop water stress from heat, increases biomass, and maintains food quality. The benefits mainly arise from reduced light intensity and cooler air temperatures rather than soil moisture alone. Agrivoltaics can cut water use by about 50% without lowering yields, offering a promising approach to manage water resources, reduce costs, and adapt agriculture to climate change. Figure 37 is a schematic diagram showing the interaction between photovoltaic panels and crop growth in an agrivoltaic system. It highlights how shading influences light availability, temperature control, and water retention. Plants exposed to full sunlight face higher temperatures and increased evapotranspiration, resulting in more water loss. Conversely, shaded plants experience cooler temperatures, reduced light intensity, and improved water retention, which help reduce water stress and may enhance biomass production.

Figure 37. PV–crop interaction in agrivoltaics [152].

Figure 37. PV–crop interaction in agrivoltaics [152].

Ref. [153] assess the use of reused photovoltaic (PV) modules in agrivoltaic systems for sustainable horticulture, specifically over tomato crops. The results show that reused PV modules deliver reliable energy performance close to that of new panels, despite slightly lower efficiency. The shading from PV panels benefits crop yield, while reused modules reduce environmental impacts by cutting raw material use and electronic waste. Incorporating reused PV modules supports circular economy goals, making agrivoltaics a sustainable approach to combine energy production with food security and efficient land use. Ref. [154] assessed how agrivoltaic (APV) shading affects the microclimate, photosynthesis, and growth of five mungbean genotypes in tropical Nigeria. Three PV configurations, east–west (WPV), west–east (EPV), and no PV (NPV), were compared. Under PV shading, especially EPV, plants experienced reduced harmful radiation, lower leaf temperatures, and improved humidity, resulting in enhanced photosynthetic efficiency, plant growth, and yield traits like height, pod number, and seed count. The results highlight that APV systems can boost crop performance in hot climates and that panel orientation significantly influences outcomes, with EPV outperforming WPV.

The study by [155] investigates global competition and potential synergy between solar energy and agriculture. It highlights that large-scale photovoltaic (PV) installations often replace cropland, leading to land-use conflicts. However, agrivoltaics, the dual use of land for both solar energy and agriculture, can reduce this competition, especially for rainfed crops that may benefit from partial shading. Using spatial data and an agro-hydrological model, the study estimates that 22–35% of global non-irrigated croplands could maintain their yields under agrivoltaic systems, potentially reducing water stress. In contrast, 13–16% of PV farms have already displaced cropland. The research provides global high-resolution maps of cropland suitable for agrivoltaic conversion and suggests agrivoltaics as a promising solution for balancing energy transition goals with local food and water security.

Ref. [156] explore regenerative agrivoltaics, a system that combines regenerative agriculture with agrivoltaics (dual-use solar and crop production) to build sustainable, climate-resilient food and energy systems. Regenerative agriculture enhances soil health, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration, while agrivoltaics optimize land use and provide renewable energy. The review identifies key research areas, such as soil health, water-use efficiency, microbial activity, crop yield, and economic viability, needed to advance this integrated system. The authors argue that regenerative agrivoltaics can transform land management, reduce emissions, and improve food security. Broad adoption will require targeted policies and industry support to enable a low-cost, zero-carbon future for agriculture and energy. Figure 38 is a comparison between conventional farming and regenerative agrivoltaics. This diagram contrasts traditional agricultural practices with regenerative agrivoltaic systems, highlighting differences in land use, energy integration, soil health, and sustainability outcomes.

Figure 38. Regenerative agrivoltaics vs. conventional farming: a comparative overview [156].

Figure 38. Regenerative agrivoltaics vs. conventional farming: a comparative overview [156].

Ref. [157] explores an innovative 3D solar harvesting approach for agrivoltaic systems using transparent, spectral-selective photovoltaic (PV) panels. Traditional PV systems are land-intensive and often obstruct sunlight, negatively impacting crop growth. The proposed solution uses multi-layered, transparent dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) to allow light penetration for crop photosynthesis while generating electricity across multiple PV layers. This three-dimensional architecture significantly increases solar harvesting surface area and optimizes land use. The paper highlights the benefits of this system in enhancing energy efficiency and agricultural productivity, while addressing limitations of conventional opaque PV panels. Figure 39 is a schematic illustration comparing (a) conventional single-layer, non-transparent PV panels that block sunlight and reduce crop yield, with (b) a 3D solar agrivoltaic system using multiple transparent PV layers, which enhance both crop yield and power conversion efficiency (PCE). It also includes a schematic illustration of a conventional agrivoltaic setup where non-transparent photovoltaic panels partially block sunlight, potentially reducing light availability for crops below and a schematic diagram illustrating transparent PV panels in the 3D solar agrivoltaic system.

Figure 39. Comparison of conventional PV and 3D transparent agrivoltaic systems, agrivoltaic system with non-transparent photovoltaic panels, and transparent PVs in 3D solar agrivoltaics [157].

Figure 39. Comparison of conventional PV and 3D transparent agrivoltaic systems, agrivoltaic system with non-transparent photovoltaic panels, and transparent PVs in 3D solar agrivoltaics [157].

Ref. [158] explored agrivoltaics as a sustainable solution to improve cucumber production in the hot, arid climate of the UAE. By integrating monofacial photovoltaic (PV) panels that provide shade, the system supports better growth and fruit yield of shade-tolerant cucumbers during harsh sunlight conditions. The PV panels, tilted at 25° and positioned 1.5 m high, also enable efficient water use by repurposing cleaning water for irrigation. Results show significantly enhanced growth and lower plant mortality under the shaded area compared to direct sunlight, with performance decreasing farther from the panels. Overall, agrivoltaics present a promising approach for securing both food and clean energy in arid regions like the UAE.

Table 1 presents a comprehensive overview of key studies on agrivoltaic systems and related renewable energy applications in agriculture from 1976 to the present. The table summarizes the evolution of research across different technologies, system configurations, and operating conditions, including photovoltaic integration, crop–energy interactions, land-use efficiency, and environmental and economic performance. By organizing the literature chronologically and thematically, Table 1 highlights major research trends, methodological approaches, and knowledge gaps, thereby providing a structured foundation for the subsequent analysis and discussion of agrivoltaic system development.

Table 1. Agrivoltaic and renewable energy studies (1976—to date).

Ref	Year	Technology	System Under Study	Characteristics	Operating Condition/Constraints
[17]	1976	Biomass Production	Energy budget for crop-based solar energy	Analyzed the entire farming cycle, land use, and vegetation selection	Techno-economic comparison between direct combustion and gasification; energy plantation viability.
[18]	1982	PV-Agro Co-Use	Elevated solar collectors for agriculture	Uniform radiation is achievable with elevated panels and spacing	Design optimized for dual use; limitations on scale and grid connection.
[19]	1997 (Oct)	PV Feasibility	Large-scale PV in deserts	Cost assessment at different sites, optimized sub-units	Reply on global solar resource and local costs, optimized at 100 MW.
[20]	1997 (Oct)	PV Grid Integration	Spatial fluctuation analysis of PVs	Used cross-correlation to estimate output volatility	Fluctuations persist even with a wide PV distribution; impact on utility stability
[21]	1998	Plant Growth under Shade	Experimental shading on crops	MDW (Mean Dry Weight) varies by species and shade	Warm-season grasses are more sensitive; statistical analysis via Tukey’s test.
[22]	1999	Passive/Active Solar Design	Solar-integrated buildings	Various integration models are discussed	Design must follow a holistic, energy-efficient strategy.
[23]	2004	PV + Biomass	Land use comparison in rich vs. poor regions	Biomass is more land-intensive; PV is favorable for land savings	PV adoption is constrained by infrastructure needs.
[24]	2006	Stand-alone PV Greenhouse	PV-driven ventilators	High energy usage by the control circuit	Energy use needs optimization to reduce costs and increase reliability.
[25]	2008	Shade Tolerance	Morphological plasticity in low light	Variation in species’ shade response and adaptation	Influenced by plant stage and environment, critical for predicting ecosystem resilience.
[26]	2009	Land Use for Energy	Life cycle land demand analysis	Compared land needs for renewables vs. conventional	PV has the lowest land footprint; biomass has the highest.
[27]	2010 (Aug)	PV + Greenhouse	PV array integration in Gothic-arch greenhouse	Studied shadow patterns and long-term irradiance	A checkerboard array distributes the shadow better, with similar energy output.
[28]	2010 (Sep)	Renewable Farming Systems	On-farm renewable energy integration	Retrofit farm systems; energy as a co-product	Must be clean, risk-free; it requires affordable and efficient tech.
[29]	2010	PV Land-use Efficiency	CPV vs. flat-plate shading	Tracker optimization reduces shading losses	Shadow and spectral mismatch affect performance; efficient layout is crucial.
[30]	2010	Semi-Transparent PV	Greenhouse-integrated PV panels	PV modules replace glass panes; dual electricity–agriculture use	Generates electricity + enables crop growth; tied to farm revenue model.
[31]	2011 (July)	PV + GSM Automation	GSM-enabled solar pump	Autonomous, remotely operable, and low maintenance	Ideal for off-grid irrigation; includes inverter and sensor control loop.
[32]	Oct 2011	Agrivoltaic Systems	AV systems combine PV panels and crops on the same land unit	The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) is used to measure efficiency. Predicted high productivity	Potential solution for land scarcity; prototype validation needed.
[33]	Nov 2011	AutoCAD Model	Orientation evaluation of even-span greenhouse	3D shadow analysis with AutoCAD; better than classical geometry, but time-consuming	Used for modeling solar radiation transmittance; E-W orientation at 0° is considered.
[34]	Jan 2012	DC Photovoltaic Water Pumping System	LLPs, STWs, DTWs, and HTWs powered by solar	Integration of DC-DC buck converter; mass solar tracking improves efficiency	Direct Coupled System (no PCU); measurements taken over one day for pump performance.
[35]	Feb 2012	Agrivoltaics	Integration of PV with agricultural systems	Emphasizes system reliability, adaptability, and comfort for users	Future innovation is needed for greenhouse designs, transparent PV panels, and suitable crops.
[36]	Mar 2012	PV Greenhouse	Checkerboard vs. straight-line PV array on 12.9% of the roof	Welsh onion under intermittent shading; reduced growth offset by similar power generation	Checkerboard shading diminishes negative plant growth impact; maintains energy output.
[37]	Apr 2012	Solar-powered Irrigation	BLDC motor with solar panel for dwarf cherry trees	3.84 kW system with 48 panels; drip irrigation for efficient water use	Sensor-based automation reduces irrigation labor, weed growth, and salinization.
[38]	May 2012	Solar Agro Sprayer	Rural spraying application using solar panels	Lead–acid battery stores energy for pesticide spraying	Low O&M costs; easy installation; no greenhouse gas emissions; supports rural prosperity.
[39]	Aug 2012	PV-integrated Greenhouse	Commercial Raspa y Amagado greenhouse	9.8% roof PV coverage; tomato growth unaffected in market value	Minor differences in fruit size; no commercial impact; maintains product class.
[40]	Sept 2012	Artificial Neural Network	Greenhouse with 9.79% roof PV coverage	Annual normalized power output: 8.25 kWh/m2	Suitable for complex, nonlinear PV system configurations in greenhouses/buildings.
[41]	Nov 2012	PV Pumping System	Comparison of two similar SPV arrays	Regular cleaning and temperature control enhance efficiency	The DC-PVPS system described is a battery buffer system used for voltage stabilization.
[42]	Dec 2012	Flexible PV Film (EVA)	Laminated flexible PV film for greenhouses	0.5 mm film; fits curved greenhouse surfaces	Low PAR transmittance limits plant growth but enhances power generation.
[43]	Jan 2013	PV Water Pumping System	24-module system for rural water needs	Flow rate: 1.3 m3/min; 702 m3/day output	12-month assessment; reliable in remote areas; low maintenance.
[44]	Jan 2013	Agrivoltaics	Experimental AV with microclimate and crop monitoring	Enhanced shade radiation blocking improves foliar traits	Traits help select crops suitable for AV systems; optimize productivity.
[45]	Aug 2013	Agrivoltaic Cropping System	Two systems with different PV densities across seasons	Temperature patterns and growth rates are mostly unaffected by PVs	Requires minimal adaptation; focus on efficient radiation use of crops.
[46]	Oct 2013	Evapotranspiration Under PV	Theoretical and empirical evapotranspiration analysis	Reduced ETR in shade due to reduced demand	Higher WUE is possible by selecting fast-cover crops, improving light capture, and reducing transpiration.
[47]	Mar 2014	Fuzzy Logic-Controlled MPPT-Assisted PV-FC Power Generation	Simulink model of hybrid PV/FC feeding induction motor pump	Validated simulation model; analyzed PV, FC, DC/DC, and DC/AC converters, and IM pump load; power quality analysis	I–V and P–V characteristics of PVs at various temperatures/radiation levels; minimum rule base FLC used; whole system found satisfactory for IM pump load.
[48]	Mar 2014	Solar Cell-Powered Drip Irrigation	Solar drip irrigation in a sugarcane field	Avg. dripper flow rate 0.82 L/h; EU 76.83%; rainfall rate 2.73 mm/h; irrigates 300 m2	The battery can power the pump for 6–8 h without recharging; performance degrades after 6 h; cost and operational efficiency are analyzed.
[49]	Apr 2014	PV Technology	Solar pump for crop irrigation	Water area per crop calculated; long-term (10-year) cost comparison with diesel and PDB	Study supports transition to solar irrigation with pilot initiatives; financial and technical support recommended.
[50]	May 2014	Solar Greenhouse with PV	Small experimental greenhouse with roof-mounted PV modules	Hydroponic lettuce under 50% light transmittance; seasonal study	Diffused light improved irradiation uniformity; studied the effect of light condition on lettuce morphology, yield, and photosynthesis.
[51]	Jun 2014	Two PV System Prototypes for Greenhouse Roofs	Semi-transparent bifacial PV modules for greenhouses	PV1 had 3× more cell density than PV2; output compared to greenhouse energy demands	PV1 and PV2 are suitable in high-irradiation areas; they need module surface cleaning, design optimization, and manufacturing automation.
[52]	Aug 2014	CMOS Solar Power Monitoring	Solar power to frequency converter with calibration circuit	Voltage-to-current converter; digitized output; solar power: 37.86–380.67 W/m2 → 1.39–2.1 MHz frequency	Calibration reduced error from 15.11% to 0.72%; validated through SPICE simulation; compatible with many transmission media (e.g., IR and radio).
[53]	Aug 2014	Fuzzy Logic for Energy Management	Off-grid PV irrigation for tomato cultivation	Load control algorithm via microcontroller; uses off-the-shelf components	Battery use minimized; PV meets water demand; simulation confirms energy management feasibility in tomato irrigation (Tunisia).
[54]	Sep 2014	PV with Multi-Sensor System	Soil water content measurement for irrigation	Measures soil moisture, humidity, and precipitation; tested for farmer-acceptable metrics	Early experimental stage: further sensor calibration needed (especially humidity and precipitation sensors).
[55]	Nov 2014	Greenhouse with PV System and Inverter	PV greenhouse with tomato crop	8% thermal energy loss via back cover; microclimate impacts transpiration and crop uniformity	Requires differentiated crop management; solar variability affects mineral solution distribution among crop lines.
[56]	Dec 2014	Daylighting and Insolation Analysis	Various PV greenhouse models	Simulation of insolation and daylight distribution across greenhouse sections	Shadowing depends on the sun’s position and roof PV configuration; it encourages correlation of models with field data to refine greenhouse PV designs.
[57]	Jun 2014	Socio-economic Assessment	Agricultural and sectoral linkage in the Middle East	Rural sectors linked by labor and trade	Highlights regional interconnectivity through agricultural labor and trade rather than isolated PV systems.
[58]	2015	Conventional PVs	Java Tea cultivation under PV arrays	Cultivation of herbal crops in a large PV farm space (95W mono PV array)	Demonstrated at University Putra Malaysia, addresses the economic feasibility of combining herbal crops with solar PV installations.
[59]	2015	PV-Equipped Greenhouses	Asymmetric and Venlo greenhouses with rooftop PVs	CFD simulation of solar radiation, heat, and vapor fields	Simulated environmental boundary conditions; useful for greenhouse energy optimization.
[60]	2016	Dynamic Photovoltaic Greenhouse	Rotatable PV panels on greenhouse prototype	Longitudinal panel rotation; optimized solar capture during clear sky in hot season	Aims to maximize energy capture without sacrificing crop growth conditions.
[61]	2016	Semi-transparent PVs	Micro solar cell-based modules for greenhouse roofs	New prototype with STM-based roof; 12.87 V, 36 mA under STC	Tested under 1 kW/m2, 25 °C, AM 1.5; effective for greenhouse integration.
[62]	2016	PVSyst and STICS Coupled Model	Agrivoltaic system for lettuce in the U.S.	Coupled simulation of PV energy and crop yield (lettuce); crop model STICS	Optimal PV density depends on tilt, spacing, area, and crop shade tolerance.
[63]	2016	PVs and Water Use	Solar panels and crops in India	Examined co-location of PV and crops for efficient land and water use	Explores water-efficient strategies and socio-economic implications, e.g., aloe cultivation in arid zones.
[64]	2016	Conventional PVs	Crop integration with PV in Italy	Spatial-based open-source model used to evaluate feasibility	Considers landscape preservation, crop morphology, and the land specialization index.
[65]	2017	Photovoltaic Greenhouses	Radiation estimation model	Developed an algorithm to estimate global radiation in PV greenhouses	Under various light/shadow scenarios, applicable for optimizing light inside PV greenhouses.
[66]	2017	Integrated PV Agricultural Greenhouses (PVGs)	Five PVG case studies in China	Studies performance, economics, and social benefits	Climate-dependent performance provides insight for wider deployment in China.
[67]	2017	Agrivoltaics	Agricultural land in China	Optimize electric power generation and agricultural land use	China climate.
[68]	2017	PV modules (Trina Solar 310 W TSM-310-PD14 polycrystalline silicon)	Grape farms in India	Techno-economic analysis for installing PV between trellises considering grape shade tolerance	Dual land use.
[69]	2017	PV-covered Greenhouse	PV-covered greenhouse	Analysis of the installed PV panels’ effect on energy production and plant growth	Fixed and sun-tracking PV panels on greenhouses.
[70]	2017	Semi-transparent PVs	Opaque PV-based greenhouse	State-of-the-art overview
[71]	2017	Solar Tracking PVs	Solar trackers beside stationary agrivoltaic systems in Montpellier	Introducing dynamic agrivoltaics systems with orientable PVPs	European Union climate.
[72]	2018	PV and Wind Power Deployment	European Union	Review of PV and wind power deployment and policy drivers	European Union climate.
[73]	2018	PV Modules	Greenhouses	Discusses the growth of PV-based greenhouses and shading effects	Shading variation.
[74]	2018	PV Modules	Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area, USA	Dual use of agricultural land	Constraints: cost and land.
[75]	2018	Semi-transparent PVs	Greenhouses	Examines the impact of semi-transparent PVs on power generation and tomato growth	Tomato plant shading effects.
[76]	2018	Flexible PV panels on a Canarian Greenhouse	Tomato production under photovoltaic greenhouses	Evaluates microclimate and crop quality under PV shading	Weather conditions.
[77]	2018	0.8 × 1.6 m PV rows (4 m above ground)	Lavalette platform of IRSTEA, Montpellier, France	Water budget and crop growth modeling for irrigated lettuces with PV tilt strategies	Influenced by stomatal behavior.
[78]	2018	Ground-mounted PV Modules	Modified and monetary-based Functional Units (FU)	Proposals for new FUs for agrivoltaics	Weather conditions.
[79]	2018	Semi-transparent and Transparent PV Panels	Introduction of organic photovoltaics	Transparent and semi-transparent PV systems	Solar energy allocation.
[80]	2018	PV Panels	Unirrigated pasture	Quantifies PV impact on soil moisture and biomass under water stress	Microclimate changes; water usage.
[81]	2018	Greenhouse	All solar energy systems	Efficiency analysis of greenhouses in urban land-sharing for energy and crops	Weather conditions.
[82]	2018	Agrivoltaic	Grape farms in Xinjiang, China	Reviews agrivoltaics in China	Optimal tilt angle with local sunshine conditions.
[83]	2019	PV Panels	Greenhouses	Simulation models of PV-based greenhouses with high (1/2 roof) and low (1/3, 1/4 roof) density	Netherlands climate.
[84]	2019	Photovoltaics	Agricultural lands	Investigation of technical potential for utility-scale solar PV projects (>1 MW)	Évora (Portugal) climate.
[85]	2019	Semi-transparent Photovoltaics	Greenhouses	Demonstrates the economic non-viability of STPVs due to shading, causing extra electricity to use for lighting	Extra electricity consumption for lighting.
[86]	2019	PV panels	Greenhouses	Frameworks for optimal energy efficiency combining PV-cladded greenhouse roof designs	Heating cost.
[87]	2019	Stilt-mounted Photovoltaic Panels	Agrivoltaic systems for corn	Evaluation of agrivoltaic system performance using stilt-mounted PV panels	Weather conditions.
[88]	2019	CFD simulation	PV-based greenhouses	Investigation of microclimate behavior and dynamics of transparent PV greenhouses	Greenhouse microclimate.
[89]	2019	Semi-transparent Photovoltaic, Flexible Organic Photovoltaic (OPV)	PV-based greenhouses	Economic viability evaluation of semi-transparent; flexible OPV modules for greenhouse shading	Greenhouse shading.
[90]	2019	Agrivoltaic	Japanese rural areas	Investigation of sector-wide social impact scoping (SSIS) for agrivoltaic dissemination policy	Preliminary social impact assessment.
[91]	2019	Thermal Model Simulation	PV-based greenhouse	Design and implementation of a thermal simulation model for PV panels on greenhouse roofs to evaluate energy production	Energy yield from PVs.
[92]	2020	PV Panels	Greenhouses	Investigation of shading effects and the positive environmental impact of PV panels providing electric power	Shading.
[93]	2020	Bifacial PV Panels	Tilt bifacial solar panels	Optimization of PV array row density for fixed-tilt bifacial PV based on crop and food–energy productivity	Fixed-tilt bifacial solar panels.
[94]	2020	Solar Technology	U.S., EU, and Asian countries	Review of PV integration into agriculture for sustainability and growth	Weather conditions.
[95]	2020	Paris Agreement Mechanisms	Tracking progress on PA’s targets	Analysis of the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement (PA)	Global climate.
[96]	2020	PVG Types	Greenhouses	Identification of PVG types existing in southern Europe	European climate.
[97]	2020	Flexible and Semi-transparent Organic Photovoltaic (OPV)	Greenhouse tunnel with a tomato crop	Clarification of shading using flexible and semi-transparent OPV modules	Summer climate conditions.
[98]	2020	PV Combined with Information and Communications Technology (ICT)	Normal, semi-transparent, and bifacial PVs	1300 × 520 mm PV module mounted to create 30% shading on grape crops, combined with ICT to study agrivoltaic impact	Open sun condition, weather conditions.
[99]	2020	Rotating semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV)	Greenhouse	Feasibility design and performance evaluation of blind-type shading regulator-based rotating semi-transparent PV blades on greenhouse roof	Sunlight penetration
[100]	2021	Energy Plus Dynamic Model	Smart Agro-Manufacturing Laboratory (SamLab)	High-efficiency greenhouse modeled with the Energy Plus dynamic model located in Albenga, Italy	Mediterranean climate.
[101]	2021	Agrovoltaico (agrivoltaic system on tensile structures)	Po Valley	Modeling environmental and economic performance of agrivoltaic system constructed on tensile structures (Agrovoltaico®)	Human land appropriation and climate change.
[102]	2021	Solar Thermal, Solar Photovoltaic (PV), Photovoltaic–Thermal (PVT), Geothermal, and Biomass	Greenhouses	Net-zero energy greenhouses and adapted thermal energy storage systems	Indoor heat increases.
[103]	2021	Vertical Bifacial vs. Tilted Monofacial PVs	Titled north/south monofacial farms and vertical east/west bifacial farms	Performance comparison of traditional N/S monofacial and vertical E/W bifacial farms	Open sun condition.
[104]	2021	Agrivoltaic	Celeriac cultivated underneath an agrivoltaic system	Summary of effects of agrivoltaic (AV) systems on celeriac farming in Central Europe	Under AV systems.
[105]	2021	Agrivoltaics	Agricultural lands	Promotion of agrivoltaic technologies for simultaneous electric power generation and crop cultivation	Socio-political dimensions of agrivoltaics.
[106]	2021	CFD simulation	Mono-span greenhouse	CFD simulation investigating the shading effects of south-oriented PV panels on climate and plant growth	Summer and winter conditions.
[107]	2021	Mono-crystalline PV Arrays and Single-axis Sun-tracking System	Structure 4 m above ground	Optimal design and planning with APV system 3.3 m off the ground, tilt 32°, and 1 m spacing between PV rows
[108]	2021	The Adoption Potential of Dual Land-Use Systems (FEADPLUS)	Dual land-use systems (FEADPLUS)	Novel analytical framework assessing economic benefits	Standard test conditions; installed at 20° angle and 52.2° azimuth.
[109]	2021	PV Panels	Farming land	Design considerations and performance indicators of agrivoltaics; economically justified for energy–food sustainability	Food–energy constraints.
[110]	2021	Conventional PV Plants	Agrivoltaic system in Turkey	Evaluation of agrivoltaic potential in Turkey	Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Marmara climates.
[111]	2021	Solar Panels and Trackers	Kale, chard, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, and spinach yield	Identification of the economic viability of sun-tracking PV for crop production	Partial shading, adequate PAR, and moderate temperature extremes.
[112]	2021	Wooden Boards Imitating Solar Panels	Photovoltaic systems installed above rice crops	Analysis of how rice crops are influenced by agrivoltaic systems	Weather temperature.
[113]	2021	Using DRAM to Fabricate a POSCAS	Open-source cold-frame agrivoltaic system (POSCAS)	Design and implementation of a testing framework for partially transparent solar PV called POSCAS	Weather conditions.
[114]	2021	SWOT Analysis	Rural electrification, water conservation	Reviews agrivoltaics in India as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) using SWOT analysis	Shading and lighting conditions.
[115]	2021	Off-grid Solar PV	Greenhouse	Land use, energy, GHG emissions, economic feasibility, and environmental co-benefits of off-grid solar PV combined with high-value crops	Land use.
[116]	2022	Ground-mounted Solar Power Generation	Plant with 5 PV arrays in 25 kWp AC micro grid-connected PV system	225 amorphous PV modules installed at 2.0 m and 0.8 m height on north and south sides, total panel area 352.15 m2	Bok choy tolerates 35 °C to −3 °C and prefers slightly acidic sandy soil.
[117]	2022	3D Computational Fluid Dynamic Model	Vertical bifacial photovoltaic module	Evaluates temperature distribution and energy performance of vertical bifacial PV module for agrivoltaics	Different operating conditions/temperature effects.
[118]	2022	East/West-faced Bifacial Vertical Solar Farms	Crop type and PV array design	Light productivity factor (LPF) assessment	Open farm, clear sky conditions; maximize LPF subject to max allowed loss.
[119]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Community perception study	81.8% of public support for agrivoltaics; preference for economic benefit, local protection, fair benefit sharing	Emphasizes the need to address local concerns for project success.
[120]	2022	Bifacial PV in Agrivoltaics	Multi-scale modeling of APV topologies	E-W wings layout best balances shading and yield, land productivity increases by 50%, energy decreases by 33%	Tested in the Boston climate; optimized for shade-tolerant crops.
[121]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Ecosystem services review	Agrivoltaics can support SDGs: energy, food, biodiversity, and climate regulation	Highlights research gaps, especially in regulating services.
[122]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Systematic review (98 studies)	Focused on engineering aspects, lacking financial and large-scale livestock-integrated studies	Emphasizes the need for economic models for >1 MW systems.
[123]	2022	Portable Agrivoltaic	0.675 kWp, Odisha, India	Land Equivalent Ratio: 1.73, B/C ratio: 1.71, and payback: 9.49 yrs; 1.5 kg turmeric yield	Decreased temperature by 1–1.5 °C, tested with DC microgrid.
[124] [125]	2022	Agrivoltaic	6 kWp system, India	Revenue: USD 2308.9, LER: 1.42, and payback: 7.6 yrs; B/C ratio for turmeric: 1.86	Supports socio-economic feasibility and rural development.
[126]	2022	STPV (c-Si, OPVs, DSSCs, CPVs, LSCs)	Global AV system review	c-Si STPV is most common (cost-effective, efficient); OPVs/DSSCs enable selective transparency	Needs more research on efficiency, cost, and plant response.
[127]	2022	Agrivoltaic with Grid Optimization/Battery Storage	Rice paddy deployment, large-scale AV integration in rural Japan	Linear programming optimization: spatial distribution, rice paddies are more effective for AV; combined battery + transmission, most cost/CO2 efficient	Requires spatial planning and region-specific design. Requires transmission expansion and storage; dependent on crop types and location.
[128]	2022	Retrofitted and Co-designed AV Systems	Retrofitting crops under PV and purpose-built AV systems	Agrivoltaics improve energy output, land-use efficiency, and farmer income. However, the potential of underutilized land beneath existing PV systems remains a key research gap.	Highlights the lack of research on retrofitting and site-specific feasibility. Provides implementation guidance and policy support.
[129]	2023	Various AV Configurations	Global AV system types	Vertical, elevated, ground-mounted, and orchard-integrated PV setups	Shade-tolerant crops; policy-dependent deployment.
[130]	2023	Agriphotovoltaics (APVs)	Global APV review	Panel spacing for crop equipment access; schematic design tools	Need for crop-specific PV designs and stakeholder coordination.
[131]	2023	Agrivoltaics with Circularity Focus	Dutch AV systems	Evaluate landscape visibility and regional economic support	Weak integration of landscape features; public acceptance challenge.
[132]	2023	Smart Tracking AV System	U.S. ACRE Farm model	Anti-tracking during key crop growth; 86.71% annual energy output retained	Sacrifices peak solar gain; balancing energy–food trade-offs.
[133]	2023	Bifacial PV (N/S vs. E/W)	AV vs. GMPV economic modeling	Crop type, array density, and ML ratio affect feasibility	High ML (>25) and low density (<60%) are favorable for AV; sensitive to FIT rates.
[134]	2024	Crop-based AV	UK AV systems with overhead-tilted/vertical PV	LER up to 1.52; profit increases by 210%; strong NPV despite high cost	Regional variation in profitability; tilted systems are most efficient.
[135]	2023	Concentrator PV (CPV)	AV systems with CPV and spectral control	Dichroic films, sun-tracking lenses for PAR/NIR control	CPV cost and complexity; requires plant-specific spectral optimization.
[136]	2023	Bibliometric Analysis	Global AV research trends	121 SCOPUS articles; focus on short-term AV outcomes	Lacks evaluation standards; emphasizes conferences as key knowledge sources.
[137]	2023	Agrivoltaics	Integrated food–water–energy system in the UAE using semi-transparent PV panels	Dual-use of land for crop growth and energy generation; improved land efficiency, crop yield, and energy output; reduced panel dust; includes PV-based livestock shade, elevated panels for vegetables, solar trees for water pumping, and agrivoltaic date farms	Arid climate conditions; need for elevated and transparent PV structures; suitable for desert agriculture.
[138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145]	2023& 2024	Solar-powered Aquaponics	Aquaponics system integrated with PV at Sharjah Men’s Campus	Closed-loop system growing fish and plants; 19 PV modules (53 m2); LED grow lights; soil-free; water-saving	Operates within a Mobile Learning Unit; desert climate; limited water and no soil.
[146]	2024	Agrivoltaics (AVs)	General review on AV potential and limitations	AV improves land use, protects crops, conserves water, and boosts solar efficiency; shading effects vary	Most projects are early stage; need for site-specific designs, economic analysis, and policy support.
[147]	2024	Agrivoltaic Systems (AVSs)	Comprehensive AVS review	Enhances land/water use, crop yield, clean energy, dual income; up to 56% economic gain	High initial cost, shading, regulatory barriers; needs site-specific design and inclusive policy.
[148]	2024	Solar-powered Irrigation with AV	Tomato farming in Botswana	Low/high-density AV with solar irrigation; offsets 16% yield loss via electricity generation	Payback: 3–3.6 yrs (AV) vs. 17.5 yrs (control); AV is profitable and diesel-free.
[149]	2024	Agrivoltaic Systems (AVSs)	Fruit crops under different AV designs	Examines static, sun-tracking, and agronomic tracking on fruit yield/quality	Microclimate control critical; <30% shading advised; more research needed in semi-arid areas.
[150]	2024	Agrivoltaics in Arid Climates	AV potential in Jordan	9.5% of land suitable; tomato fields under AV could meet 50% RE targets and save 8.6% water	Needs economic viability research; climate-appropriate deployment important.
[151]	2025	Floating, AV, and Ground-mounted PV	Tech comparison for energy and environment	Floating PV optimizes land use; AV resolves land conflict; holistic sustainability review	Addresses PV degradation, economics, and long-term design improvements.
[152]	2025	AV with Shading in Water-stressed Agriculture	Chicory under PV shade and variable irrigation	AV reduces heat/water stress, ↑ biomass, and maintains quality; 50% less water use	Benefits stem from reduced light and cooler air, not just soil moisture.
[153]	2025	Reused PV in AV Systems	Sustainable tomato horticulture	Reused PV provides close-to-new energy performance; supports the circular economy	Shading improves yield; reduces raw material and e-waste impact.
[154]	2025	Orientation-based AV (WPV, EPV, NPV)	Mungbean genotypes in tropical Nigeria	EPV offers better photosynthesis, humidity, and yield; the microclimate improved	Shading config crucial; EPV > WPV in performance.
[155]	2025	Global AV Land-use Modeling	Global synergy of PV and agriculture	22–35% of rainfed crops are compatible with AV; high-resolution suitability maps	AV can alleviate food–energy land conflict; up to 16% of cropland is already displaced by PV.
[156]	2025	Regenerative Agrivoltaics	Regenerative farming + AV	Improves soil, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and water-use efficiency	Needs policies and R&D in soil health, microbial impact, and economic viability.
[157]	2025	3D Transparent AV	3D solar harvesting with DSSCs	Transparent PVs allow light for crops; multi-layered design boosts area and efficiency	Solves crop shading from opaque panels; enhances yield and energy gain.
[158]	2025	AV for Arid Horticulture	Cucumber farming in the UAE	Shade from monofacial PV ↑ yield, ↓ mortality, and reused PV cleaning water	PVs at 25°, 1.5 m height; best results closest to panel shade.

Table 1. Agrivoltaic and renewable energy studies (1976—to date).

Ref	Year	Technology	System Under Study	Characteristics	Operating Condition/Constraints
[17]	1976	Biomass Production	Energy budget for crop-based solar energy	Analyzed the entire farming cycle, land use, and vegetation selection	Techno-economic comparison between direct combustion and gasification; energy plantation viability.
[18]	1982	PV-Agro Co-Use	Elevated solar collectors for agriculture	Uniform radiation is achievable with elevated panels and spacing	Design optimized for dual use; limitations on scale and grid connection.
[19]	1997 (Oct)	PV Feasibility	Large-scale PV in deserts	Cost assessment at different sites, optimized sub-units	Reply on global solar resource and local costs, optimized at 100 MW.
[20]	1997 (Oct)	PV Grid Integration	Spatial fluctuation analysis of PVs	Used cross-correlation to estimate output volatility	Fluctuations persist even with a wide PV distribution; impact on utility stability
[21]	1998	Plant Growth under Shade	Experimental shading on crops	MDW (Mean Dry Weight) varies by species and shade	Warm-season grasses are more sensitive; statistical analysis via Tukey’s test.
[22]	1999	Passive/Active Solar Design	Solar-integrated buildings	Various integration models are discussed	Design must follow a holistic, energy-efficient strategy.
[23]	2004	PV + Biomass	Land use comparison in rich vs. poor regions	Biomass is more land-intensive; PV is favorable for land savings	PV adoption is constrained by infrastructure needs.
[24]	2006	Stand-alone PV Greenhouse	PV-driven ventilators	High energy usage by the control circuit	Energy use needs optimization to reduce costs and increase reliability.
[25]	2008	Shade Tolerance	Morphological plasticity in low light	Variation in species’ shade response and adaptation	Influenced by plant stage and environment, critical for predicting ecosystem resilience.
[26]	2009	Land Use for Energy	Life cycle land demand analysis	Compared land needs for renewables vs. conventional	PV has the lowest land footprint; biomass has the highest.
[27]	2010 (Aug)	PV + Greenhouse	PV array integration in Gothic-arch greenhouse	Studied shadow patterns and long-term irradiance	A checkerboard array distributes the shadow better, with similar energy output.
[28]	2010 (Sep)	Renewable Farming Systems	On-farm renewable energy integration	Retrofit farm systems; energy as a co-product	Must be clean, risk-free; it requires affordable and efficient tech.
[29]	2010	PV Land-use Efficiency	CPV vs. flat-plate shading	Tracker optimization reduces shading losses	Shadow and spectral mismatch affect performance; efficient layout is crucial.
[30]	2010	Semi-Transparent PV	Greenhouse-integrated PV panels	PV modules replace glass panes; dual electricity–agriculture use	Generates electricity + enables crop growth; tied to farm revenue model.
[31]	2011 (July)	PV + GSM Automation	GSM-enabled solar pump	Autonomous, remotely operable, and low maintenance	Ideal for off-grid irrigation; includes inverter and sensor control loop.
[32]	Oct 2011	Agrivoltaic Systems	AV systems combine PV panels and crops on the same land unit	The Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) is used to measure efficiency. Predicted high productivity	Potential solution for land scarcity; prototype validation needed.
[33]	Nov 2011	AutoCAD Model	Orientation evaluation of even-span greenhouse	3D shadow analysis with AutoCAD; better than classical geometry, but time-consuming	Used for modeling solar radiation transmittance; E-W orientation at 0° is considered.
[34]	Jan 2012	DC Photovoltaic Water Pumping System	LLPs, STWs, DTWs, and HTWs powered by solar	Integration of DC-DC buck converter; mass solar tracking improves efficiency	Direct Coupled System (no PCU); measurements taken over one day for pump performance.
[35]	Feb 2012	Agrivoltaics	Integration of PV with agricultural systems	Emphasizes system reliability, adaptability, and comfort for users	Future innovation is needed for greenhouse designs, transparent PV panels, and suitable crops.
[36]	Mar 2012	PV Greenhouse	Checkerboard vs. straight-line PV array on 12.9% of the roof	Welsh onion under intermittent shading; reduced growth offset by similar power generation	Checkerboard shading diminishes negative plant growth impact; maintains energy output.
[37]	Apr 2012	Solar-powered Irrigation	BLDC motor with solar panel for dwarf cherry trees	3.84 kW system with 48 panels; drip irrigation for efficient water use	Sensor-based automation reduces irrigation labor, weed growth, and salinization.
[38]	May 2012	Solar Agro Sprayer	Rural spraying application using solar panels	Lead–acid battery stores energy for pesticide spraying	Low O&M costs; easy installation; no greenhouse gas emissions; supports rural prosperity.
[39]	Aug 2012	PV-integrated Greenhouse	Commercial Raspa y Amagado greenhouse	9.8% roof PV coverage; tomato growth unaffected in market value	Minor differences in fruit size; no commercial impact; maintains product class.
[40]	Sept 2012	Artificial Neural Network	Greenhouse with 9.79% roof PV coverage	Annual normalized power output: 8.25 kWh/m2	Suitable for complex, nonlinear PV system configurations in greenhouses/buildings.
[41]	Nov 2012	PV Pumping System	Comparison of two similar SPV arrays	Regular cleaning and temperature control enhance efficiency	The DC-PVPS system described is a battery buffer system used for voltage stabilization.
[42]	Dec 2012	Flexible PV Film (EVA)	Laminated flexible PV film for greenhouses	0.5 mm film; fits curved greenhouse surfaces	Low PAR transmittance limits plant growth but enhances power generation.
[43]	Jan 2013	PV Water Pumping System	24-module system for rural water needs	Flow rate: 1.3 m3/min; 702 m3/day output	12-month assessment; reliable in remote areas; low maintenance.
[44]	Jan 2013	Agrivoltaics	Experimental AV with microclimate and crop monitoring	Enhanced shade radiation blocking improves foliar traits	Traits help select crops suitable for AV systems; optimize productivity.
[45]	Aug 2013	Agrivoltaic Cropping System	Two systems with different PV densities across seasons	Temperature patterns and growth rates are mostly unaffected by PVs	Requires minimal adaptation; focus on efficient radiation use of crops.
[46]	Oct 2013	Evapotranspiration Under PV	Theoretical and empirical evapotranspiration analysis	Reduced ETR in shade due to reduced demand	Higher WUE is possible by selecting fast-cover crops, improving light capture, and reducing transpiration.
[47]	Mar 2014	Fuzzy Logic-Controlled MPPT-Assisted PV-FC Power Generation	Simulink model of hybrid PV/FC feeding induction motor pump	Validated simulation model; analyzed PV, FC, DC/DC, and DC/AC converters, and IM pump load; power quality analysis	I–V and P–V characteristics of PVs at various temperatures/radiation levels; minimum rule base FLC used; whole system found satisfactory for IM pump load.
[48]	Mar 2014	Solar Cell-Powered Drip Irrigation	Solar drip irrigation in a sugarcane field	Avg. dripper flow rate 0.82 L/h; EU 76.83%; rainfall rate 2.73 mm/h; irrigates 300 m2	The battery can power the pump for 6–8 h without recharging; performance degrades after 6 h; cost and operational efficiency are analyzed.
[49]	Apr 2014	PV Technology	Solar pump for crop irrigation	Water area per crop calculated; long-term (10-year) cost comparison with diesel and PDB	Study supports transition to solar irrigation with pilot initiatives; financial and technical support recommended.
[50]	May 2014	Solar Greenhouse with PV	Small experimental greenhouse with roof-mounted PV modules	Hydroponic lettuce under 50% light transmittance; seasonal study	Diffused light improved irradiation uniformity; studied the effect of light condition on lettuce morphology, yield, and photosynthesis.
[51]	Jun 2014	Two PV System Prototypes for Greenhouse Roofs	Semi-transparent bifacial PV modules for greenhouses	PV1 had 3× more cell density than PV2; output compared to greenhouse energy demands	PV1 and PV2 are suitable in high-irradiation areas; they need module surface cleaning, design optimization, and manufacturing automation.
[52]	Aug 2014	CMOS Solar Power Monitoring	Solar power to frequency converter with calibration circuit	Voltage-to-current converter; digitized output; solar power: 37.86–380.67 W/m2 → 1.39–2.1 MHz frequency	Calibration reduced error from 15.11% to 0.72%; validated through SPICE simulation; compatible with many transmission media (e.g., IR and radio).
[53]	Aug 2014	Fuzzy Logic for Energy Management	Off-grid PV irrigation for tomato cultivation	Load control algorithm via microcontroller; uses off-the-shelf components	Battery use minimized; PV meets water demand; simulation confirms energy management feasibility in tomato irrigation (Tunisia).
[54]	Sep 2014	PV with Multi-Sensor System	Soil water content measurement for irrigation	Measures soil moisture, humidity, and precipitation; tested for farmer-acceptable metrics	Early experimental stage: further sensor calibration needed (especially humidity and precipitation sensors).
[55]	Nov 2014	Greenhouse with PV System and Inverter	PV greenhouse with tomato crop	8% thermal energy loss via back cover; microclimate impacts transpiration and crop uniformity	Requires differentiated crop management; solar variability affects mineral solution distribution among crop lines.
[56]	Dec 2014	Daylighting and Insolation Analysis	Various PV greenhouse models	Simulation of insolation and daylight distribution across greenhouse sections	Shadowing depends on the sun’s position and roof PV configuration; it encourages correlation of models with field data to refine greenhouse PV designs.
[57]	Jun 2014	Socio-economic Assessment	Agricultural and sectoral linkage in the Middle East	Rural sectors linked by labor and trade	Highlights regional interconnectivity through agricultural labor and trade rather than isolated PV systems.
[58]	2015	Conventional PVs	Java Tea cultivation under PV arrays	Cultivation of herbal crops in a large PV farm space (95W mono PV array)	Demonstrated at University Putra Malaysia, addresses the economic feasibility of combining herbal crops with solar PV installations.
[59]	2015	PV-Equipped Greenhouses	Asymmetric and Venlo greenhouses with rooftop PVs	CFD simulation of solar radiation, heat, and vapor fields	Simulated environmental boundary conditions; useful for greenhouse energy optimization.
[60]	2016	Dynamic Photovoltaic Greenhouse	Rotatable PV panels on greenhouse prototype	Longitudinal panel rotation; optimized solar capture during clear sky in hot season	Aims to maximize energy capture without sacrificing crop growth conditions.
[61]	2016	Semi-transparent PVs	Micro solar cell-based modules for greenhouse roofs	New prototype with STM-based roof; 12.87 V, 36 mA under STC	Tested under 1 kW/m2, 25 °C, AM 1.5; effective for greenhouse integration.
[62]	2016	PVSyst and STICS Coupled Model	Agrivoltaic system for lettuce in the U.S.	Coupled simulation of PV energy and crop yield (lettuce); crop model STICS	Optimal PV density depends on tilt, spacing, area, and crop shade tolerance.
[63]	2016	PVs and Water Use	Solar panels and crops in India	Examined co-location of PV and crops for efficient land and water use	Explores water-efficient strategies and socio-economic implications, e.g., aloe cultivation in arid zones.
[64]	2016	Conventional PVs	Crop integration with PV in Italy	Spatial-based open-source model used to evaluate feasibility	Considers landscape preservation, crop morphology, and the land specialization index.
[65]	2017	Photovoltaic Greenhouses	Radiation estimation model	Developed an algorithm to estimate global radiation in PV greenhouses	Under various light/shadow scenarios, applicable for optimizing light inside PV greenhouses.
[66]	2017	Integrated PV Agricultural Greenhouses (PVGs)	Five PVG case studies in China	Studies performance, economics, and social benefits	Climate-dependent performance provides insight for wider deployment in China.
[67]	2017	Agrivoltaics	Agricultural land in China	Optimize electric power generation and agricultural land use	China climate.
[68]	2017	PV modules (Trina Solar 310 W TSM-310-PD14 polycrystalline silicon)	Grape farms in India	Techno-economic analysis for installing PV between trellises considering grape shade tolerance	Dual land use.
[69]	2017	PV-covered Greenhouse	PV-covered greenhouse	Analysis of the installed PV panels’ effect on energy production and plant growth	Fixed and sun-tracking PV panels on greenhouses.
[70]	2017	Semi-transparent PVs	Opaque PV-based greenhouse	State-of-the-art overview
[71]	2017	Solar Tracking PVs	Solar trackers beside stationary agrivoltaic systems in Montpellier	Introducing dynamic agrivoltaics systems with orientable PVPs	European Union climate.
[72]	2018	PV and Wind Power Deployment	European Union	Review of PV and wind power deployment and policy drivers	European Union climate.
[73]	2018	PV Modules	Greenhouses	Discusses the growth of PV-based greenhouses and shading effects	Shading variation.
[74]	2018	PV Modules	Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area, USA	Dual use of agricultural land	Constraints: cost and land.
[75]	2018	Semi-transparent PVs	Greenhouses	Examines the impact of semi-transparent PVs on power generation and tomato growth	Tomato plant shading effects.
[76]	2018	Flexible PV panels on a Canarian Greenhouse	Tomato production under photovoltaic greenhouses	Evaluates microclimate and crop quality under PV shading	Weather conditions.
[77]	2018	0.8 × 1.6 m PV rows (4 m above ground)	Lavalette platform of IRSTEA, Montpellier, France	Water budget and crop growth modeling for irrigated lettuces with PV tilt strategies	Influenced by stomatal behavior.
[78]	2018	Ground-mounted PV Modules	Modified and monetary-based Functional Units (FU)	Proposals for new FUs for agrivoltaics	Weather conditions.
[79]	2018	Semi-transparent and Transparent PV Panels	Introduction of organic photovoltaics	Transparent and semi-transparent PV systems	Solar energy allocation.
[80]	2018	PV Panels	Unirrigated pasture	Quantifies PV impact on soil moisture and biomass under water stress	Microclimate changes; water usage.
[81]	2018	Greenhouse	All solar energy systems	Efficiency analysis of greenhouses in urban land-sharing for energy and crops	Weather conditions.
[82]	2018	Agrivoltaic	Grape farms in Xinjiang, China	Reviews agrivoltaics in China	Optimal tilt angle with local sunshine conditions.
[83]	2019	PV Panels	Greenhouses	Simulation models of PV-based greenhouses with high (1/2 roof) and low (1/3, 1/4 roof) density	Netherlands climate.
[84]	2019	Photovoltaics	Agricultural lands	Investigation of technical potential for utility-scale solar PV projects (>1 MW)	Évora (Portugal) climate.
[85]	2019	Semi-transparent Photovoltaics	Greenhouses	Demonstrates the economic non-viability of STPVs due to shading, causing extra electricity to use for lighting	Extra electricity consumption for lighting.
[86]	2019	PV panels	Greenhouses	Frameworks for optimal energy efficiency combining PV-cladded greenhouse roof designs	Heating cost.
[87]	2019	Stilt-mounted Photovoltaic Panels	Agrivoltaic systems for corn	Evaluation of agrivoltaic system performance using stilt-mounted PV panels	Weather conditions.
[88]	2019	CFD simulation	PV-based greenhouses	Investigation of microclimate behavior and dynamics of transparent PV greenhouses	Greenhouse microclimate.
[89]	2019	Semi-transparent Photovoltaic, Flexible Organic Photovoltaic (OPV)	PV-based greenhouses	Economic viability evaluation of semi-transparent; flexible OPV modules for greenhouse shading	Greenhouse shading.
[90]	2019	Agrivoltaic	Japanese rural areas	Investigation of sector-wide social impact scoping (SSIS) for agrivoltaic dissemination policy	Preliminary social impact assessment.
[91]	2019	Thermal Model Simulation	PV-based greenhouse	Design and implementation of a thermal simulation model for PV panels on greenhouse roofs to evaluate energy production	Energy yield from PVs.
[92]	2020	PV Panels	Greenhouses	Investigation of shading effects and the positive environmental impact of PV panels providing electric power	Shading.
[93]	2020	Bifacial PV Panels	Tilt bifacial solar panels	Optimization of PV array row density for fixed-tilt bifacial PV based on crop and food–energy productivity	Fixed-tilt bifacial solar panels.
[94]	2020	Solar Technology	U.S., EU, and Asian countries	Review of PV integration into agriculture for sustainability and growth	Weather conditions.
[95]	2020	Paris Agreement Mechanisms	Tracking progress on PA’s targets	Analysis of the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement (PA)	Global climate.
[96]	2020	PVG Types	Greenhouses	Identification of PVG types existing in southern Europe	European climate.
[97]	2020	Flexible and Semi-transparent Organic Photovoltaic (OPV)	Greenhouse tunnel with a tomato crop	Clarification of shading using flexible and semi-transparent OPV modules	Summer climate conditions.
[98]	2020	PV Combined with Information and Communications Technology (ICT)	Normal, semi-transparent, and bifacial PVs	1300 × 520 mm PV module mounted to create 30% shading on grape crops, combined with ICT to study agrivoltaic impact	Open sun condition, weather conditions.
[99]	2020	Rotating semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV)	Greenhouse	Feasibility design and performance evaluation of blind-type shading regulator-based rotating semi-transparent PV blades on greenhouse roof	Sunlight penetration
[100]	2021	Energy Plus Dynamic Model	Smart Agro-Manufacturing Laboratory (SamLab)	High-efficiency greenhouse modeled with the Energy Plus dynamic model located in Albenga, Italy	Mediterranean climate.
[101]	2021	Agrovoltaico (agrivoltaic system on tensile structures)	Po Valley	Modeling environmental and economic performance of agrivoltaic system constructed on tensile structures (Agrovoltaico®)	Human land appropriation and climate change.
[102]	2021	Solar Thermal, Solar Photovoltaic (PV), Photovoltaic–Thermal (PVT), Geothermal, and Biomass	Greenhouses	Net-zero energy greenhouses and adapted thermal energy storage systems	Indoor heat increases.
[103]	2021	Vertical Bifacial vs. Tilted Monofacial PVs	Titled north/south monofacial farms and vertical east/west bifacial farms	Performance comparison of traditional N/S monofacial and vertical E/W bifacial farms	Open sun condition.
[104]	2021	Agrivoltaic	Celeriac cultivated underneath an agrivoltaic system	Summary of effects of agrivoltaic (AV) systems on celeriac farming in Central Europe	Under AV systems.
[105]	2021	Agrivoltaics	Agricultural lands	Promotion of agrivoltaic technologies for simultaneous electric power generation and crop cultivation	Socio-political dimensions of agrivoltaics.
[106]	2021	CFD simulation	Mono-span greenhouse	CFD simulation investigating the shading effects of south-oriented PV panels on climate and plant growth	Summer and winter conditions.
[107]	2021	Mono-crystalline PV Arrays and Single-axis Sun-tracking System	Structure 4 m above ground	Optimal design and planning with APV system 3.3 m off the ground, tilt 32°, and 1 m spacing between PV rows
[108]	2021	The Adoption Potential of Dual Land-Use Systems (FEADPLUS)	Dual land-use systems (FEADPLUS)	Novel analytical framework assessing economic benefits	Standard test conditions; installed at 20° angle and 52.2° azimuth.
[109]	2021	PV Panels	Farming land	Design considerations and performance indicators of agrivoltaics; economically justified for energy–food sustainability	Food–energy constraints.
[110]	2021	Conventional PV Plants	Agrivoltaic system in Turkey	Evaluation of agrivoltaic potential in Turkey	Mediterranean, Black Sea, and Marmara climates.
[111]	2021	Solar Panels and Trackers	Kale, chard, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, and spinach yield	Identification of the economic viability of sun-tracking PV for crop production	Partial shading, adequate PAR, and moderate temperature extremes.
[112]	2021	Wooden Boards Imitating Solar Panels	Photovoltaic systems installed above rice crops	Analysis of how rice crops are influenced by agrivoltaic systems	Weather temperature.
[113]	2021	Using DRAM to Fabricate a POSCAS	Open-source cold-frame agrivoltaic system (POSCAS)	Design and implementation of a testing framework for partially transparent solar PV called POSCAS	Weather conditions.
[114]	2021	SWOT Analysis	Rural electrification, water conservation	Reviews agrivoltaics in India as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) using SWOT analysis	Shading and lighting conditions.
[115]	2021	Off-grid Solar PV	Greenhouse	Land use, energy, GHG emissions, economic feasibility, and environmental co-benefits of off-grid solar PV combined with high-value crops	Land use.
[116]	2022	Ground-mounted Solar Power Generation	Plant with 5 PV arrays in 25 kWp AC micro grid-connected PV system	225 amorphous PV modules installed at 2.0 m and 0.8 m height on north and south sides, total panel area 352.15 m2	Bok choy tolerates 35 °C to −3 °C and prefers slightly acidic sandy soil.
[117]	2022	3D Computational Fluid Dynamic Model	Vertical bifacial photovoltaic module	Evaluates temperature distribution and energy performance of vertical bifacial PV module for agrivoltaics	Different operating conditions/temperature effects.
[118]	2022	East/West-faced Bifacial Vertical Solar Farms	Crop type and PV array design	Light productivity factor (LPF) assessment	Open farm, clear sky conditions; maximize LPF subject to max allowed loss.
[119]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Community perception study	81.8% of public support for agrivoltaics; preference for economic benefit, local protection, fair benefit sharing	Emphasizes the need to address local concerns for project success.
[120]	2022	Bifacial PV in Agrivoltaics	Multi-scale modeling of APV topologies	E-W wings layout best balances shading and yield, land productivity increases by 50%, energy decreases by 33%	Tested in the Boston climate; optimized for shade-tolerant crops.
[121]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Ecosystem services review	Agrivoltaics can support SDGs: energy, food, biodiversity, and climate regulation	Highlights research gaps, especially in regulating services.
[122]	2022	Agrivoltaic	Systematic review (98 studies)	Focused on engineering aspects, lacking financial and large-scale livestock-integrated studies	Emphasizes the need for economic models for >1 MW systems.
[123]	2022	Portable Agrivoltaic	0.675 kWp, Odisha, India	Land Equivalent Ratio: 1.73, B/C ratio: 1.71, and payback: 9.49 yrs; 1.5 kg turmeric yield	Decreased temperature by 1–1.5 °C, tested with DC microgrid.
[124] [125]	2022	Agrivoltaic	6 kWp system, India	Revenue: USD 2308.9, LER: 1.42, and payback: 7.6 yrs; B/C ratio for turmeric: 1.86	Supports socio-economic feasibility and rural development.
[126]	2022	STPV (c-Si, OPVs, DSSCs, CPVs, LSCs)	Global AV system review	c-Si STPV is most common (cost-effective, efficient); OPVs/DSSCs enable selective transparency	Needs more research on efficiency, cost, and plant response.
[127]	2022	Agrivoltaic with Grid Optimization/Battery Storage	Rice paddy deployment, large-scale AV integration in rural Japan	Linear programming optimization: spatial distribution, rice paddies are more effective for AV; combined battery + transmission, most cost/CO2 efficient	Requires spatial planning and region-specific design. Requires transmission expansion and storage; dependent on crop types and location.
[128]	2022	Retrofitted and Co-designed AV Systems	Retrofitting crops under PV and purpose-built AV systems	Agrivoltaics improve energy output, land-use efficiency, and farmer income. However, the potential of underutilized land beneath existing PV systems remains a key research gap.	Highlights the lack of research on retrofitting and site-specific feasibility. Provides implementation guidance and policy support.
[129]	2023	Various AV Configurations	Global AV system types	Vertical, elevated, ground-mounted, and orchard-integrated PV setups	Shade-tolerant crops; policy-dependent deployment.
[130]	2023	Agriphotovoltaics (APVs)	Global APV review	Panel spacing for crop equipment access; schematic design tools	Need for crop-specific PV designs and stakeholder coordination.
[131]	2023	Agrivoltaics with Circularity Focus	Dutch AV systems	Evaluate landscape visibility and regional economic support	Weak integration of landscape features; public acceptance challenge.
[132]	2023	Smart Tracking AV System	U.S. ACRE Farm model	Anti-tracking during key crop growth; 86.71% annual energy output retained	Sacrifices peak solar gain; balancing energy–food trade-offs.
[133]	2023	Bifacial PV (N/S vs. E/W)	AV vs. GMPV economic modeling	Crop type, array density, and ML ratio affect feasibility	High ML (>25) and low density (<60%) are favorable for AV; sensitive to FIT rates.
[134]	2024	Crop-based AV	UK AV systems with overhead-tilted/vertical PV	LER up to 1.52; profit increases by 210%; strong NPV despite high cost	Regional variation in profitability; tilted systems are most efficient.
[135]	2023	Concentrator PV (CPV)	AV systems with CPV and spectral control	Dichroic films, sun-tracking lenses for PAR/NIR control	CPV cost and complexity; requires plant-specific spectral optimization.
[136]	2023	Bibliometric Analysis	Global AV research trends	121 SCOPUS articles; focus on short-term AV outcomes	Lacks evaluation standards; emphasizes conferences as key knowledge sources.
[137]	2023	Agrivoltaics	Integrated food–water–energy system in the UAE using semi-transparent PV panels	Dual-use of land for crop growth and energy generation; improved land efficiency, crop yield, and energy output; reduced panel dust; includes PV-based livestock shade, elevated panels for vegetables, solar trees for water pumping, and agrivoltaic date farms	Arid climate conditions; need for elevated and transparent PV structures; suitable for desert agriculture.
[138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145]	2023& 2024	Solar-powered Aquaponics	Aquaponics system integrated with PV at Sharjah Men’s Campus	Closed-loop system growing fish and plants; 19 PV modules (53 m2); LED grow lights; soil-free; water-saving	Operates within a Mobile Learning Unit; desert climate; limited water and no soil.
[146]	2024	Agrivoltaics (AVs)	General review on AV potential and limitations	AV improves land use, protects crops, conserves water, and boosts solar efficiency; shading effects vary	Most projects are early stage; need for site-specific designs, economic analysis, and policy support.
[147]	2024	Agrivoltaic Systems (AVSs)	Comprehensive AVS review	Enhances land/water use, crop yield, clean energy, dual income; up to 56% economic gain	High initial cost, shading, regulatory barriers; needs site-specific design and inclusive policy.
[148]	2024	Solar-powered Irrigation with AV	Tomato farming in Botswana	Low/high-density AV with solar irrigation; offsets 16% yield loss via electricity generation	Payback: 3–3.6 yrs (AV) vs. 17.5 yrs (control); AV is profitable and diesel-free.
[149]	2024	Agrivoltaic Systems (AVSs)	Fruit crops under different AV designs	Examines static, sun-tracking, and agronomic tracking on fruit yield/quality	Microclimate control critical; <30% shading advised; more research needed in semi-arid areas.
[150]	2024	Agrivoltaics in Arid Climates	AV potential in Jordan	9.5% of land suitable; tomato fields under AV could meet 50% RE targets and save 8.6% water	Needs economic viability research; climate-appropriate deployment important.
[151]	2025	Floating, AV, and Ground-mounted PV	Tech comparison for energy and environment	Floating PV optimizes land use; AV resolves land conflict; holistic sustainability review	Addresses PV degradation, economics, and long-term design improvements.
[152]	2025	AV with Shading in Water-stressed Agriculture	Chicory under PV shade and variable irrigation	AV reduces heat/water stress, ↑ biomass, and maintains quality; 50% less water use	Benefits stem from reduced light and cooler air, not just soil moisture.
[153]	2025	Reused PV in AV Systems	Sustainable tomato horticulture	Reused PV provides close-to-new energy performance; supports the circular economy	Shading improves yield; reduces raw material and e-waste impact.
[154]	2025	Orientation-based AV (WPV, EPV, NPV)	Mungbean genotypes in tropical Nigeria	EPV offers better photosynthesis, humidity, and yield; the microclimate improved	Shading config crucial; EPV > WPV in performance.
[155]	2025	Global AV Land-use Modeling	Global synergy of PV and agriculture	22–35% of rainfed crops are compatible with AV; high-resolution suitability maps	AV can alleviate food–energy land conflict; up to 16% of cropland is already displaced by PV.
[156]	2025	Regenerative Agrivoltaics	Regenerative farming + AV	Improves soil, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and water-use efficiency	Needs policies and R&D in soil health, microbial impact, and economic viability.
[157]	2025	3D Transparent AV	3D solar harvesting with DSSCs	Transparent PVs allow light for crops; multi-layered design boosts area and efficiency	Solves crop shading from opaque panels; enhances yield and energy gain.
[158]	2025	AV for Arid Horticulture	Cucumber farming in the UAE	Shade from monofacial PV ↑ yield, ↓ mortality, and reused PV cleaning water	PVs at 25°, 1.5 m height; best results closest to panel shade.

3. Discussion, Relationships, and Thematic Flow Among the Studies

Rather than treating agrivoltaic studies as isolated case reports, the following discussion synthesizes and compares their findings to identify the underlying variables responsible for divergent system performance across regions and crops.

Here is a synthesized relationship between all the reviewed agrivoltaic system studies, highlighting their interconnections in terms of themes, methodologies, findings, and implications; from summaries, the research can be broadly organized into four interconnected thematic areas:

1. Technology and System Configurations

• Agrivoltaic System Designs: Includes open-field setups, stilt-mounted arrays, and tensile structures tailored for dual land use.
• PV Module Innovations: Deployment of semi-transparent, bifacial, flexible organic panels, and solar tracking systems to balance light sharing and energy production.
• Greenhouse Integration: Use of covered roofs, PV tunnels, and thermal control models to incorporate photovoltaics into protected agriculture.
• Advanced Modeling and Simulation: Application of CFD, Energy Plus, and 3D dynamic modeling tools to optimize thermal performance and system efficiency.

Middle East Context and Applicability

In the Middle East, where solar irradiance levels are among the highest globally and land resources are often constrained by desertification and urban expansion, the reviewed agrivoltaic system configurations offer valuable transferable insights. Elevated and widely spaced PV structures, bifacial modules, and tracking systems (successfully demonstrated in Europe and Asia) are particularly relevant for mitigating heat accumulation while maximizing energy yield under extreme irradiance conditions. However, system designs must be adapted to withstand high ambient temperatures, dust accumulation, and sandstorms, emphasizing the need for robust materials, optimized panel tilt, and low-maintenance configurations suitable for arid environments.

2. Crop Performance and Environmental Dynamics

• Agronomic Impact: Studies assess yield and growth across various crops like grapes, lettuce, rice, tomatoes, and celeriac under shaded conditions.
• Microclimate Regulation: PV structures influence temperature, humidity, and stomatal activity, creating favorable growing conditions.
• Water and Soil Interaction: Changes in soil moisture and irrigation demand highlight improved water-use efficiency.
• Ecosystem Feedback: Microclimate and biomass productivity are consistently linked to system configuration and shading levels.

Implications for Arid and Semi-Arid Middle Eastern Agriculture

Findings from global agrivoltaic studies are highly relevant to Middle Eastern agriculture, where heat stress and water scarcity significantly limit crop productivity. Evidence that moderate shading improves microclimate conditions, reduces evapotranspiration, and enhances water-use efficiency is particularly applicable to this region. Shade-tolerant and heat-resilient crops identified in international studies (such as tomatoes, leafy greens, and certain cereals) represent promising candidates for agrivoltaic deployment in Middle Eastern farming systems, especially under controlled irrigation strategies.

3. Operational Context and Constraints

• Climatic and Regional Factors: Research spans diverse locations—China, India, Europe, USA, and tropical/Mediterranean zones—demonstrating context-specific outcomes.
• Land-Use Optimization: AVSs offer solutions for minimizing food–energy trade-offs, especially in land-scarce or arid regions.
• Techno-Economic Viability: Cost-effectiveness, shading tolerance, and feasibility are explored through comprehensive economic modeling.
• Policy and Social Dimensions: Adoption potential is influenced by climate targets (e.g., Paris Agreement), socio-political support, and stakeholder engagement.

4. System Performance and Sustainability

• Energy Yield Optimization: System performance is influenced by design parameters such as tilt angles, panel spacing, and tracking mechanisms.
• Environmental Benefits: AV systems contribute to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, better water management, and improved ecosystem resilience.
• Integrated Resource Frameworks: Alignment with food–energy–water nexus principles enhances systemic sustainability.
• Future Prospects: Research points toward innovations in design, regulation, and cross-sector policy for scaling AV solutions.

4. Agrivoltaic Applications, Constraints, and Opportunities in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

4.1. Climatic and Agricultural Context

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) regions are characterized by arid and semi-arid climates, high solar irradiance, limited freshwater availability, and increasing pressure on agricultural land. Average annual solar radiation often exceeds 2000 kWh m⁻², creating strong potential for photovoltaic (PV) energy generation. Agriculture is constrained by high evapotranspiration, soil salinity, and temperature extremes, with dominant crops including date palms, vegetables (tomatoes, cucumbers, and leafy greens), cereals, and forage. These environmental conditions create a compelling rationale for agrivoltaic (AV) systems, which can mitigate heat and water stress while simultaneously generating renewable energy.

4.2. Regional Constraints Affecting Agrivoltaic Design

Agrivoltaic design in the MENA region must account for multiple environmental, economic, and social constraints:

• Extreme solar irradiance and heat: Crop heat stress and reduced photosynthetic efficiency require elevated PV structures, semi-transparent modules, or shading strategies that balance energy generation with crop light requirements.
• Water scarcity and salinity: Crop selection and irrigation management are critical. Integration with solar-powered irrigation or desalination systems can improve water-use efficiency and maintain productivity under limited freshwater availability.
• Economic and policy considerations: Water pricing, energy subsidies, and electricity tariffs influence the financial feasibility of AV systems. Although subsidized irrigation energy may reduce immediate financial incentives, long-term sustainability can be achieved through improved water efficiency and reduced cooling costs.
• Labor availability and land access: Elevated or vertical PV structures facilitate mechanized farming, harvest operations, and maintenance.
• Land tenure and regulations: Policies governing dual land use, permitting, and renewable energy integration affect where AV systems can be deployed.
• Crop portfolios: Shade-tolerant and heat-sensitive crops (e.g., leafy vegetables, certain fruits, and forage crops) are most compatible, while perennial crops such as date palms can coexist with elevated PV structures without compromising yield.

4.3. Existing Pilots and Demonstration Projects/Case Studies from the Middle East

Several agrivoltaic pilots and feasibility studies have been conducted in the MENA region, illustrating how global AV concepts can be adapted to local conditions. To consolidate these studies and avoid repetitive textual descriptions, we reference the MENA synthesis table (

Table 2. Pilot projects and feasibility studies demonstrating agrivoltaic potential in the MENA region.

Country	Climate	PV Configuration	Crops	Policy/Feasibility	Key Findings
UAE	Hyper-arid, extreme summer heat	Elevated fixed-tilt, semi-transparent greenhouse PV	Vegetables, leafy greens	National solar targets, food security programs	Shading reduced heat stress and cooling demand; improved water-use efficiency
Saudi Arabia	Arid desert	Elevated PV; bifacial PV	Forage, irrigated desert crops	Vision 2030 renewable and agricultural strategies	Reduced evapotranspiration; enabled dual land use
Jordan	Semi-arid, water-scarce	Fixed-tilt PV; solar-powered irrigation	Vegetables, cereals	Emphasis on cost-efficient irrigation	Lowered energy costs; improved farm economic resilience
Morocco	Semi-arid	Fixed-tilt/tracking PV	Irrigated crops, cereals	Renewable energy policies; rural electrification	Improved land-use efficiency; enhanced irrigation sustainability
Egypt	Arid, irrigated Nile Valley	PV-integrated irrigation	Vegetables, cereals, forage	Solar expansion and agricultural land protection	Potential for energy–water synergies; regulatory clarity needed
Tunisia	Semi-arid Mediterranean	Elevated PV	Horticulture, cereals	Emerging AV interest	AV projected to enhance land-use efficiency and income diversification
Oman	Arid	Pilot-scale AV; elevated PV	Forage, vegetables	Water conservation focus	Shading reduces water stress and heat exposure

), which aggregates location, PV system, crop type, shading fraction, yield, water-use efficiency, land productivity, and economic notes.

Key highlights from these case studies include the following:

• UAE: Semi-transparent greenhouse PVs with leafy vegetables reduced heat stress and improved water-use efficiency.
• Saudi Arabia: Elevated PV structures over irrigated forage crops demonstrated dual land-use potential aligned with Vision 2030 objectives.
• Jordan: PV-integrated irrigation systems enhanced energy efficiency for smallholder farmers.
• Morocco: Pilot initiatives combining PV with irrigated agriculture supported sustainable land use and rural electrification.

These examples, combined with Table 2, consolidate regional findings and clearly demonstrate how global agrivoltaic experience can be applied to Middle Eastern contexts. (Several pilot projects and feasibility studies demonstrate the practical potential of AV systems in the MENA region.)

4.4. Opportunities and Future Directions

• While agrivoltaic systems have been widely studied in temperate regions, their relevance in the Middle East is shaped by unique constraints and opportunities. Techno-economic models suggest that AV systems can provide strong economic and environmental benefits when combined with solar-powered irrigation, desalination, or off-grid rural electrification. Successful implementation will depend on region-specific economic incentives, land tenure regulations, and farmer acceptance, highlighting the need for localized pilot projects and policy alignment.
• Integrating global AV knowledge with these regional considerations supports climate-resilient agricultural practices, efficient land use, and renewable energy generation, providing a pathway for scalable deployment across MENA agricultural landscapes.

5. Agrivoltaic Applications and Feasibility in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)

• Climatic and Agricultural Context of the MENA Region

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is characterized predominantly by arid and semi-arid climates, high solar irradiance, limited freshwater availability, and increasing pressure on agricultural land. Average annual solar radiation often exceeds 2000 kWh m⁻², making the region highly suitable for photovoltaic (PV) energy generation. At the same time, agriculture in many MENA countries is constrained by water scarcity, high evapotranspiration rates, soil salinity, and rising temperatures associated with climate change. Dominant cropping systems include date palms, vegetables (e.g., tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers), forage crops, and cereals, often cultivated under irrigation or protected agriculture. These conditions create a strong rationale for agrivoltaic (AV) systems, which can simultaneously harness abundant solar resources while mitigating thermal and water stress on crops through partial shading.

• Existing Agrivoltaic Pilots and Demonstration Projects

Although large-scale commercial agrivoltaic deployment in the MENA region is still emerging, several pilot projects, demonstration studies, and feasibility assessments have been reported. In the United Arab Emirates, agrivoltaic concepts have been explored in conjunction with controlled-environment agriculture and greenhouse-integrated PV systems, focusing on reducing cooling loads, improving water-use efficiency, and maintaining crop productivity under extreme heat conditions. Saudi Arabia has initiated pilot-scale projects aligned with national renewable energy and food security strategies, particularly under Vision 2030, examining the integration of elevated PV structures with irrigated desert farming and forage production. In Jordan, studies have investigated the combination of PV systems with agricultural land and solar-powered irrigation, emphasizing water savings and energy cost reductions for smallholder farmers. Morocco represents one of the most active MENA countries in renewable energy deployment, where feasibility studies and pilot initiatives have examined agrivoltaic applications in irrigated agriculture and rural electrification contexts, supported by strong national solar energy policies.

• Technology Choices and System Configurations

Agrivoltaic system designs proposed for the MENA region are largely influenced by climatic extremes and land-use constraints. Elevated fixed-tilt PV structures are commonly recommended to allow sufficient airflow, machinery access, and crop growth beneath the panels. Semi-transparent PV modules have attracted attention for horticultural and greenhouse applications, as they enable partial light transmission while reducing excessive solar radiation and heat stress. Bifacial PV modules are particularly promising in desert environments due to high ground albedo, potentially enhancing energy yield without increasing land footprint. Vertical and sun-tracking PV configurations have also been proposed in feasibility studies to optimize energy generation while minimizing shading impacts during critical crop growth stages. Across these designs, system optimization must balance energy output, crop light requirements, and irrigation demands.

• Crop Compatibility and Agronomic Performance

Crop selection is a critical factor in determining the success of agrivoltaic systems in the MENA region. Shade-tolerant and heat-sensitive crops, such as leafy vegetables, certain fruits, and forage species, have shown favorable responses to partial shading under AV systems, including reduced evapotranspiration, improved water-use efficiency, and stabilized yields during heatwaves. Perennial crops such as date palms are particularly well suited to agrivoltaic integration due to their height, spacing, and long production cycles. Several studies suggest that controlled shading can improve crop resilience under extreme climatic conditions, although inappropriate system design may reduce photosynthetically active radiation below optimal levels. Consequently, site-specific agronomic assessment remains essential.

• Policy, Land Tenure, and Economic Considerations

Policy frameworks and land tenure systems play a decisive role in the adoption of agrivoltaic systems in the MENA region. Many countries have established ambitious renewable energy targets and offer incentives for solar PV deployment; however, regulations governing dual land use for agriculture and energy production remain underdeveloped in several jurisdictions. In some cases, land classification policies restrict the installation of PV systems on agricultural land, limiting agrivoltaic expansion. Economic feasibility studies indicate that AV systems can enhance farm income stability by diversifying revenue streams, particularly when combined with solar-powered irrigation and water-saving technologies. Nevertheless, high initial investment costs, limited access to financing, and uncertainty in electricity pricing or feed-in tariffs continue to pose challenges, especially for small- and medium-scale farmers.

• Implications for Regional Deployment

Overall, existing studies and pilot projects demonstrate that agrivoltaic systems hold significant potential for addressing interconnected challenges of energy security, water scarcity, and agricultural sustainability in the MENA region. While current implementations remain limited in scale, the alignment of agrivoltaics with regional climatic conditions, crop systems, and renewable energy strategies suggests strong prospects for wider adoption. Translating global agrivoltaic experience into the MENA context requires region-specific system design, targeted policy support, and integrated assessment of energy, water, and food outcomes. Continued pilot projects, long-term field experiments, and techno-economic evaluations are essential to support scalable and context-appropriate agrivoltaic deployment across diverse MENA agricultural landscapes.

6. Thematic Synthesis of Review Findings

6.1. Central Paradigm: Dual Land Use for Food and Energy

All reviewed studies affirm agrivoltaics as a dual-purpose land strategy that improves productivity through shared land use, enhancing the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER).

Key Insight: AVSs are particularly advantageous in regions facing land scarcity or climate stress, offering an efficient, sustainable alternative to conventional land practices.

Conclusion: Agrivoltaics provide a scalable solution to the food–energy–land nexus, reconciling competing demands with a unified approach.

6.2. Methodological Breadth

Research spans empirical trials, simulation models, and economic evaluations:

• Field studies assess crop response under varied PV setups.
• Simulation tools (e.g., EnergyPlus and SolidWorks) explore energy–microclimate interactions.
• Economic assessments use cost–benefit models, SWOT analysis, and frameworks like FEADPLUS.
• Design metrics like the Light Productivity Factor (LPF) to inform optimization strategies.

6.3. Geographic and Climatic Diversity

AV research spans continents and climates:

• Europe: Leadership in infrastructure integration and sustainability.
• Asia: Emphasis on crop-specific outcomes and climate-smart farming.
• Africa/Mediterranean: Focus on resilience and water efficiency via modeling.
• North America: Strength in public engagement and open-source tools.
• Tropics: Prioritization of off-grid and rural electrification applications.

6.4. Crop Suitability and Microclimate Effects

Crop responses under AV setups are key to viability:

• Shade-tolerant crops (e.g., spinach, tomatoes, and rice) thrive under moderate shading.
• Technologies like rotating panels and diffuse covers enhance microclimate management.

Finding: AV systems moderate heat and radiation, reducing evapotranspiration critically in hot and arid zones.

Conclusion: AVSs improve crop resilience and water efficiency, enhancing food security in climate-vulnerable areas.

6.5. Technological Innovation and System Design

Design variables significantly affect outcomes:

• Incorporation of bifacial, semi-transparent, and organic PV modules balances energy capture with light transmission.
• Comparative studies assess trade-offs among fixed, tracking, and vertical configurations.
• Scalable systems and platforms (e.g., POSCAS) promote modular, flexible deployment.
• Conclusion: Customized designs aligned with local conditions are vital. Interdisciplinary innovation and standardized testing will drive further advancement.

6.6. Economic Viability and Policy Alignment

AVSs are shown to be economically promising:

• Dual revenue from crops and electricity shortens payback periods.
• Broader benefits include rural development, emissions reduction, and water savings.

Finding: High upfront costs are offset by long-term gains, particularly when integrated with policy tools and circular economy strategies.

Conclusion: Policy-driven incentives and land-use reforms are essential to scale AV deployment and enhance farmer participation.

6.7. Climate and Energy Transition Role

Agrivoltaics contribute to sustainability and decarbonization goals:

• Support SDGs, carbon neutrality, and ecosystem preservation.
• Landscape integration, livestock co-location, and esthetic considerations support public acceptance.

Identified Gaps: Further studies are needed on long-term crop response, livestock synergy, financial modeling, and visual planning.

Conclusion: AVSs have high potential as a climate solution, but successful implementation requires coordination across agriculture, energy, environment, and policy sectors.

Policy-Driven Economic Scenarios in the Middle East

In many Middle Eastern countries, electricity and irrigation water are heavily subsidized, which can obscure the true economic value of agrivoltaic systems. Under current subsidy regimes, payback periods may appear longer compared to conventional farming practices. However, the literature-based scenario analyses indicate that under reduced subsidy conditions, higher water pricing, or the introduction of carbon pricing mechanisms, agrivoltaic systems demonstrate improved financial performance through reduced energy costs, water savings, and emissions mitigation. These findings suggest that agrivoltaics are economically resilient under long-term policy transitions aimed at sustainability and fiscal efficiency [159].

7. Final Reflection: Interdisciplinary Integration

Agrivoltaics stand as a multi-functional, adaptive approach that unites agricultural productivity with renewable energy in a single framework.

Unified Conclusion:

AV systems are climate-resilient and resource-efficient, offering benefits across food security, energy generation, and rural development. For wide-scale impact, progress must be underpinned by the following:

• Locally tailored system design;
• Supportive policy mechanisms;
• Technological and agronomic innovation;
• Evaluation standardization;
• Inclusive stakeholder engagement.

Agrivoltaics occupy a unique intersection of engineering, agriculture, environmental science, and policy, offering a transformative pathway for sustainable development.

A summary/flow chart of the agrivoltaics system can be found in Figure 40 and Figure 41.

8. Relevance to Middle Eastern Sustainability Goals

For Middle Eastern countries pursuing renewable energy expansion alongside food security and water conservation, agrivoltaics represent a strategic land-use solution aligned with national sustainability and climate adaptation agendas. The synthesis of global research highlights that, when appropriately adapted, agrivoltaic systems can support climate-resilient agriculture, reduce irrigation demand, and contribute to decarbonization pathways across arid and semi-arid landscapes.

Comparative Analysis of Performance Variability in Agrivoltaic Systems

Reported agrivoltaic system (AVS) outcomes vary widely across regions and crops, even for identical crop species, highlighting the importance of contextual and design-dependent factors. Comparative analysis of the reviewed studies indicates that performance discrepancies arise from the interaction of several core variables rather than from agrivoltaic shading alone.

First, climatic conditions play a dominant role. In hot and arid regions, moderate PV-induced shading often improves crop yield by reducing heat stress and evapotranspiration, whereas in temperate or high-latitude regions, excessive shading can limit photosynthetically active radiation and reduce productivity. Consequently, identical crops such as tomatoes or lettuce may benefit from agrivoltaics in arid climates while exhibiting neutral or negative responses in cooler environments.

Second, shading ratio and PV configuration significantly influence outcomes. Studies employing high-density or fixed-tilt PV arrays report yield reductions for light-demanding crops, whereas systems using elevated structures, optimized spacing, bifacial modules, or dynamic tracking frequently achieve balanced energy–crop performance. Differences in panel height, orientation, and light diffusion explain many contradictory findings across experiments.

Third, crop physiology and growth stage sensitivity contribute to divergent results. Shade-tolerant crops and those with flexible phenology respond more favorably to AVS conditions, while light-intensive crops show yield penalties when shading exceeds crop-specific thresholds. Temporal variations in shading during critical growth stages further amplify outcome variability.

Fourth, water management and soil conditions modulate agrivoltaic performance. In water-limited regions, reductions in soil evaporation and irrigation demand often compensate for reduced irradiance, whereas in water-abundant systems, these benefits may be less pronounced. Soil type, fertility, and irrigation strategy therefore influence whether AVSs deliver net agronomic gains.

Finally, experimental duration and scale affect reported conclusions. Short-term trials may capture immediate yield responses, while long-term studies reveal adaptive crop behavior, soil moisture stabilization, and cumulative economic benefits. Discrepancies between plot-scale experiments and commercial-scale systems further explain inconsistent results in the literature.

Overall, this comparative synthesis demonstrates that agrivoltaic performance is governed by a multidimensional interaction of climate, design, crop selection, and management practices. Understanding these interactions is essential for interpreting contrasting research outcomes and for designing site-specific AVS solutions.

Table 3. Key variables influencing performance discrepancies in agrivoltaic systems.

Influencing Variable	Description	Impact on Crop Performance	Impact on Energy Performance	Explanation of Discrepant Outcomes
Climatic Conditions	Ambient temperature, solar irradiance, humidity, and wind regime	Positive yield response in hot/arid regions due to reduced heat stress and evapotranspiration; neutral or negative effects in cooler climates	High irradiance regions favor high PV output; thermal losses are possible at extreme temperatures	Identical crops show yield gains in arid zones but yield reductions in temperate regions due to differing radiation and heat stress levels
Shading Ratio	Fraction of incoming solar radiation blocked by PV panels	Moderate shading benefits shade-tolerant crops; excessive shading reduces photosynthesis in light-demanding crops	Higher shading ratios generally increase PV density and energy yield	Conflicting crop yield results arise when shading exceeds crop-specific tolerance thresholds
PV Configuration	Panel height, tilt angle, spacing, orientation, and tracking	Elevated, well-spaced, or tracking systems improve light distribution and crop growth	Optimized configurations enhance energy yield without excessive shading	Studies using fixed, dense arrays report poorer crop outcomes than those using dynamic or elevated systems
PV Technology	Bifacial, semi-transparent, organic, or opaque modules	Semi-transparent and bifacial modules improve diffuse light availability	Bifacial modules enhance energy yield via rear-side irradiance	Different module technologies alter the light quality and quantity reaching crops
Crop Type and Physiology	Shade tolerance, growth stage sensitivity, and photosynthetic pathway	Shade-tolerant crops (e.g., lettuce, tomatoes, and rice) perform better under AVSs	Indirect effect via crop-driven system design	The same crop exhibits different responses depending on variety and phenological stage
Growth Stage Timing	Sensitivity during flowering, fruiting, or vegetative stages	Yield losses occur if shading coincides with critical growth phases	Minimal direct impact	The timing of shading explains yield inconsistencies even within the same crop
Water Availability and Irrigation	Irrigation method, water scarcity, and evapotranspiration control	Water savings often offset reduced radiation in arid regions	Enables solar-powered irrigation and energy self-consumption	Yield gains were observed in water-limited systems but not in water-abundant regions
Soil Characteristics	Soil texture, fertility, and moisture retention	Enhanced moisture retention under shaded conditions improves yield in sandy soils	No direct impact	Soil variability explains differing agronomic responses under similar AVS designs
Experimental Scale	Plot-scale vs. commercial-scale systems	Small-scale trials may overestimate or underestimate yield impacts	Larger systems capture realistic energy performance	Scale-dependent effects lead to inconsistent conclusions across studies
Study Duration	Short-term vs. long-term experiments	Long-term studies reveal crop adaptation and microclimate stabilization	Long-term improvements in economic metrics	Short-term trials may miss adaptive or cumulative benefits
Management Practices	Crop spacing, fertilization, pruning, and rotation	Optimized management mitigates shading impacts	Indirect	Differences in agronomic practices contribute to outcome variability
Regional Policy Context	Energy pricing, water subsidies, and land-use regulations	Influences adoption and system design choices	Determines economic feasibility	Policy environments shape both technical and economic performance

summarizes the core variables responsible for divergent agrivoltaic system outcomes reported across regions and experiments, providing a comparative framework to interpret conflicting results in the literature.

Classification Roadmap for Agrivoltaic System Design

To strengthen technical coherence and practical relevance, agrivoltaic system configurations can be classified through a hierarchical decision roadmap. The roadmap begins with regional climatic conditions (arid, semi-arid, Mediterranean, or controlled greenhouse environments), followed by crop type, shade tolerance, water availability, and energy demand. These factors collectively inform the selection of PV technology, mounting structure, and system operation strategy. This structured classification enables the translation of diverse technical forms into region-specific, performance-optimized agrivoltaic solutions.

Table 4. Classification roadmap and recommended agrivoltaic system configurations for diverse Middle Eastern environments.

Middle Eastern Environment	Dominant Geographical and Climatic Characteristics	Key Constraints	Recommended Agrivoltaic Configuration	Suitable PV Technologies	Primary Performance Advantages
Hyper-arid desert regions (e.g., interior Arabian Peninsula)	Extremely high solar irradiance, high temperatures, and low precipitation	Severe water scarcity, heat stress, and dust accumulation	Elevated, widely spaced open-field AVS with high ground clearance	Bifacial, dust-resistant, and single- or dual-axis tracking PV modules	Heat stress mitigation, reduced evapotranspiration, maximized energy yield
Semi-arid agricultural zones	High irradiance and seasonal rainfall variability	Periodic water stress and crop sensitivity to radiation	Fixed-tilt or single-axis tracking AVS with moderate shading ratios	Bifacial or semi-transparent PV modules	Balanced crop productivity and electricity generation
Irrigated oasis and river-based farming systems	Intensive irrigation and high-value crop cultivation	High water and energy demand for pumping	Elevated AVS integrated with solar-powered irrigation systems	High-efficiency bifacial or monofacial PV modules	Reduced irrigation energy costs and improved farm energy self-sufficiency
Mediterranean-climate regions (e.g., Levant, coastal North Africa)	Moderate temperatures and seasonal solar variation	Seasonal mismatch between crop demand and irradiance	Adjustable-tilt or seasonally optimized AVS	Semi-transparent or bifacial PV modules	Seasonal optimization of light sharing and energy production
Greenhouse-dominated agricultural systems	Controlled microclimate and high crop sensitivity	Light spectrum control, thermal regulation	Greenhouse-integrated AVS with roof-mounted or semi-transparent PV	Semi-transparent, organic, or thin-film PV modules	Improved microclimate control, dual food–energy production
Smallholder and rural off-grid farming systems	Limited grid access and small land parcels	Capital constraints, infrastructure limitations	Modular, low-cost AVS with fixed mounting structures	Standard monofacial or bifacial PV modules	Rural electrification, income diversification, and low system complexity

is a summary of the Middle East-specific technical configuration roadmap.

9. Conclusions

This review critically synthesizes recent advancements in agrivoltaic (AV) systems, emphasizing their potential to address the interconnected global challenges of food, energy, and water security, land-use efficiency, and climate resilience. Agrivoltaics have evolved into a viable and scalable dual land-use strategy, delivering co-benefits such as renewable electricity generation, enhanced agricultural productivity, rural development, and greenhouse gas mitigation.

Agrivoltaic systems (AVSs) have emerged as a transformative, multi-benefit solution at the nexus of food, energy, water, and land sustainability. By enabling the simultaneous use of land for agricultural production and solar energy generation, AVSs offer a scalable and climate-resilient strategy that improves land-use efficiency (Land Equivalent Ratio > 1), enhances crop productivity, reduces water consumption, and supports rural development. These systems directly address pressing global challenges such as land scarcity, climate change, and energy access.

Technological advancements, including bifacial, vertical, and semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV) modules, as well as dynamic sun-tracking and microclimate control systems, have significantly improved energy yield and crop performance. Experimental and simulation-based studies consistently show that shade-tolerant crops like spinach, bok choy, tomatoes, and rice can perform well under optimized AV configurations. Moreover, modular, open-source platforms such as POSCAS have expanded the accessibility and adaptability of AV systems across diverse agricultural and socio-economic contexts.

Economic feasibility assessments using tools like SWOT analysis, FEADPLUS, and cost–benefit models demonstrate favorable returns, particularly in emerging economies and rural regions. These benefits are further amplified when coupled with supportive policy incentives, land-use reforms, and community-driven implementation strategies.

Geographically, AV research spans a wide range of climatic zones, from Europe and Asia to Africa and tropical regions, highlighting its global relevance and adaptability. Comparative environmental and life cycle studies confirm that AVSs outperform conventional biomass and fossil fuel-based land use in terms of carbon mitigation, resource efficiency, and spatial optimization.

However, the successful and equitable deployment of AV systems depends on several key enablers:

• Localized, crop-specific design that accounts for microclimatic and agronomic conditions.
• Supportive policy frameworks and financial incentives tailored to regional contexts.
• Continued technological innovation in PV materials, system configurations, and irrigation integration.
• Standardized metrics and long-term field validation to guide best practices and impact assessments.
• Inclusive stakeholder engagement, particularly farmers and local communities, to ensure social acceptance and co-benefit realization.

In essence, agrivoltaics is not merely a technological solution but a systems-thinking approach, integrating engineering, agricultural science, environmental policy, and socio-economic planning. Realizing its full potential will require interdisciplinary collaboration, robust governance, and sustained investment in innovation and public participation.

Relevance to Middle Eastern Sustainability Goals

For Middle Eastern countries facing water scarcity, land constraints, and rising energy demand, agrivoltaics offers a strategic land-use approach aligned with sustainability and climate adaptation goals. When adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions, agrivoltaic systems can enhance climate-resilient agriculture, reduce irrigation requirements, and support renewable energy-driven decarbonization.

Economic and Policy Sensitivity in the Middle East

The economic viability of agrivoltaic systems in the Middle East is strongly shaped by electricity pricing, water rights, and subsidy structures. While energy and water subsidies may reduce short-term financial incentives, scenario-based assessments indicate that agrivoltaics become increasingly competitive under subsidy reform, rising water tariffs, or carbon pricing mechanisms. When evaluated using financial indicators such as LCOE, payback period, and NPV, agrivoltaic systems align well with long-term policy transitions toward market liberalization, resource efficiency, and decarbonization.

In conclusion, agrivoltaic systems represent a viable, scalable pathway toward climate-smart, economically viable, and socially inclusive land-use transformation. With coordinated action across research, policy, and practice, AVSs can play a pivotal role in building a more sustainable, food- and energy-secure future.