Design of a Training Water Network Plant for Vocational Education in the Urban Water Cycle: A Case Study in Spain

Abstract

In the context of increasing water scarcity, the new paradigm in efficient water management relies on the digitalisation of water infrastructure to optimise resource use. One of the key factors in addressing the new challenges facing urban water cycle companies is the shortage of qualified technical staff. This context highlights the new training needs of technical personnel required by companies in the urban water cycle sector due to the increasing digitalisation of tools and the new technological requirements of jobs which are not yet sufficiently reflected in the existing training offer. Companies express their dissatisfaction with how poorly existing training programs meet their current needs. Vocational training has a fundamental role to play in providing high-quality, technically up-to-date training that is aligned with the needs of water management companies. This mission involves the adoption of innovative teaching strategies and methods and the development of innovative teaching resources. This paper presents the design of a bench-scale plant specifically designed as a teaching resource at a Spanish vocational training centre that offers intermediate-level training in water networks and treatment plants and advanced-level training in water management. The plant, occupying a footprint of 4 × 5 m, simulates a drinking water distribution network, from the intake to the distribution network via a pumping station with two pumps (1 + 1) of 0.75 kW each that provide a flow range of 4–12 m³/h with a range of 22–10 m water column and a regulating reservoir of 1 m³ located above the water network. The plant is equipped with sensors that allow operational data to be monitored: pressures, flow rates, consumption and levels, enabling multiple operational scenarios to be simulated: leaks, sectorisation, pressure and flow management, etc. Its design has focused on facilitating the acquisition by students of the skills and learning outcomes required in the curricula of the different professional modules that make up the aforementioned studies, through learning based on multidisciplinary collaborative projects.

1. Introduction

1.1. Water Scarcity and the Need to Optimise Its Management

In the context of climate change, Spain is facing increasing water stress, which threatens the availability of water resources needed to support its economic and social development [1,2]. This situation requires the implementation of specific actions to optimise the management of its water resources [3]. Among other strategic actions, efforts are being made to adapt urban water systems towards the “modernisation of the water cycle through digitalisation, innovation and training, …” [4] (p. 83). In 2022, the Spanish Ministry for Ecological Transition and Demographic Challenge launched the Strategic Project for Economic Recovery and Transformation for the digitisation of the water cycle to promote the use of new information technologies in the entire water cycle in order to improve its management, increase its efficiency, reduce losses in supply networks and progress towards achieving environmental objectives set by hydrological planning [5].

In 2024, the volume of unregistered water in supply networks in Spain was 19% [6]. Improving water management requires the integration of new technologies that reduce energy consumption, minimise losses and optimise asset management. The digitisation of the entire water cycle, based on sensorisation and real-time data analysis, is driving this transformation by facilitating more efficient operational decisions [7]. In this regard, the Spanish Water Technology Platform highlights the modernisation of existing water infrastructure through the “the development of new strategies based on smart metering and system analysis that fully meet the needs of public services in terms of readability, service life, interoperability and cost to optimise distribution networks (consumption patterns, pumping strategies, leak or contamination detection, etc.)” [8] (p. 45).

The Spanish drinking water supply system consists of 1640 drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs), which produce 3966 hm³ per year, distributed through 29,305 urban reservoirs and 248,245 km of networks. However, these infrastructures are highly aged, with a renewal rate of 0.54%, which is clearly insufficient compared to the reference value of 2%. This deficit causes a high number of breaks and leaks in the network [6].

The 2020 European Drinking Water Directive (DWD) highlighted the importance of assessing and reducing water losses and required Member States to report their structural leakage levels to the European Commission using the Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) in January 2026. With the data received, the Commission will set a limit value in 2028 that will determine whether Member States must adopt action plans to reduce leaks [9]. In Spain, this directive was transposed through Royal Decree 3/2023, which establishes technical and sanitary criteria for drinking water and reinforces the obligation to control leaks. This RD requires operators to submit data by December 2025, organised according to the Leakage Management Unit, a territorial area that integrates collection, treatment, storage and distribution infrastructures managed in a unified manner [10,11]. In this regard, operators had to prepare a standard water balance according to the International Water Association (IWA) [12] and calculate the Infrastructure Leakage Index (ILI) as an indicator of network efficiency [13].

With the gathered information, in December 2025 the Ministry for Ecological Transition published a first draft diagnosis of structural leaks in Spain, the main findings of which were [14]:

• The available information covers 76.2% of the population, reaching 91% in cities and urban systems with more than 50,000 inhabitants.
• 2966 hm³ of water are supplied annually, of which 631 hm³ are not recorded due to leaks, municipal use or measurement errors.
• The average efficiency of the system is 79%.
• Actual leaks amount to 361 hm³ per year, equivalent to 13.8% of the water supplied.

1.2. Towards Water 4.0

The urban water cycle involves a series of processes, including water collection, purification, storage, distribution, urban drainage, wastewater collection and treatment, as well as eventual regeneration and reuse. Each stage generates and requires critical information (flow rates, pressures, levels, quality parameters, asset status, energy consumption, etc.), which has traditionally been managed in a fragmented way and with a low degree of automation. In contrast, the digitalisation of the urban water cycle represents a field where multiple disciplines converge, including hydraulic and environmental engineering, control and automation engineering, information technologies and construction and service project management.

The digital transformation of urban water systems, driven by water stress and aging infrastructure, integrates technologies such as sensors, IoT, SCADA, AI, advanced analytics, digital twins, and cybersecurity into layered architectures that enable real-time decision-making, reshaping planning, operation, and maintenance. The integration of these technologies delivers tailored solutions across the urban water cycle. In transport and distribution, they enable smart pressure control, dynamic network sectorisation, early leak detection, and digital twins for planning operations. Distribution is typically the main entry point for digital transformation, driven by economic and regulatory gains, with proven benefits in reducing non-revenue water, improving energy efficiency, and optimizing operations [15].

The massive implementation of smart sensors in hydraulic systems connected by the Internet of Things (IoT) is the technological basis for digitisation processes, enabling continuous monitoring of key variables such as flow, pressure, tank levels, consumption, quality parameters (pH, turbidity, residual chlorine, etc.), equipment status (vibrations, temperatures, electricity consumption, operating hours, etc.) and abnormal events in networks and facilities, enabling real-time data availability and increased operational responsiveness. SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems are at the heart of automation in treatment plants and distribution networks. Through programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and remote terminal units (RTUs), SCADA allows the status of pumps, valves, gates and other equipment to be monitored, controlled and recorded. The modernisation of SCADA in the water sector is moving towards open, scalable and interoperable platforms capable of integrating hundreds or thousands of heterogeneous devices, as well as exchanging data with other corporate systems (Geographic Information System GIS, Enterprise Resource Planning ERP, analytics platforms). SCADA systems are at the heart of operational control; their modernisation with IoT and analytics helps to reduce losses, improve service continuity and optimise preventive maintenance [16,17].

Geographic information systems (GIS) allow the infrastructure (pipes, valves, hydrants, reservoirs, pumping stations) to be represented spatially and linked to territorial information (land use, transport networks, flood risks). AI and data analysis develop algorithms for demand prediction, leak detection, energy optimisation and predictive maintenance thanks to the massive availability of data from IoT sensors. These are essential tools for evaluating scenarios, simulating failures and optimising operations. Digitalisation requires communication networks using technologies that include cellular networks (4G/5G), proprietary radio frequency and low-power, long-range networks (LPWAN) such as Narrowed Internet of Things (NB-IoT) or Long Range Wide Area Network (LoRaWAN), which allow low-power sensors to be deployed in remote locations. These technologies support large volumes of real-time data from the field to analysis platforms, ensuring operational continuity and control [18].

The literature proposes a five-layer architecture: sensorisation, transmission, processing, intelligent analytics and decision support. This structure guides the orderly integration of IoT-SCADA-AI-digital twin into the urban cycle with a phased implementation that begins with instrumentation and data collection, followed by control and optimisation using modernised SCADA systems that provide operational KPIs, followed by data analytics with AI models for leak detection, demand forecasting, predictive maintenance, and energy optimisation, and finally the establishment of digital twins for scenario simulation. However, the sector’s digital transformation process does not come without risks and the need to overcome various challenges, including interoperability, data quality, legacy system integration, initial investment costs, cybersecurity and, also, the current limited technical training. Digitalisation requires new profiles (data scientists, software engineers, cybersecurity specialists) and the updating of operational staff skills. For future technical professionals, understanding this technological ecosystem is key to the modernisation of the sector [19,20,21,22].

1.3. Skills and Training Needs

Urban water service operators are characterised by their multidisciplinary scope, which encompasses hydraulic techniques; chemical and biological treatment and purification processes; maintenance and conservation of equipment and facilities; cartographic and geographic information systems; sensors and remote control; communications; information; commercial and customer service management; business organisation; and environmental and economic–financial sustainability. Therefore, they require different profiles with specialised technical training that is aligned with current technical progress.

In order to meet the technical profiles required by the urban water sector, the training framework at the technical and specialist operator level is defined by Royal Decree 114/2017, of 17 February, which establishes the title of Intermediate Technician in Water Networks and Treatment Plants, whose general competence is “to assemble, operate and maintain water networks, as well as operating and maintaining water treatment plant equipment and facilities, applying current regulations, quality protocols, and established occupational health and safety protocols, ensuring their functionality and respect for the environment” and by Royal Decree 113/2017, of 17 February, which establishes the title of Senior Technician in Water Management, whose general competence is “to manage the efficient use of water, organising and developing the assembly, commissioning, operation and maintenance of water networks and treatment plants, applying the quality requirements for both the facilities and the water, and the occupational risk prevention and environmental protection measures required by current regulations”.

The Organic Law 3/2022, of 31 March, on the organisation and integration of Vocational Education and Training (VET) led to a modification of the official curricula of all VET degrees in Spain with the introduction of cross-cutting modules on sustainability and digitalisation of the productive sectors which, in accordance with an official basic curriculum, teaching teams had to adapt to their specific professional context. The 2025/26 academic year will be the first in which the digitisation module will be taught as a second-year subject in both intermediate and advanced VET programmes, in accordance with the implementation calendar for the Vocational Training System established by Organic Law 3/2022 [23,24,25].

The digital transformation of the urban water cycle is generating a growing demand for new technical skills that are not sufficiently covered by the current training programs. This mismatch between the available profiles and the real needs of the sector means that companies are finding it difficult to recruit staff with the required qualifications. At the same time, Royal Decree 3/2023 establishes the obligation for all operational staff involved in water quality to have a minimum qualification and provides for the updating of training curricula by 2030. Various sectoral organisations insist on the urgency of adapting educational and practical training programs to meet the growing demand for specialised professionals. In this context, industrial digitalization requires modernizing vocational training through new methodologies, technologies, and simulation environments that replicate digital workplaces—an essential step to address emerging challenges in urban water management [26,27,28,29].

1.4. Didactic Innovation in the Training of Technicians in the Urban Water Sector

One of the main objectives of the Spanish vocational training system is to ensure that individuals are qualified to carry out professional activities. The law defines professional competence as the set of knowledge and skills that enable people to perform professional activities in accordance with production and employment requirements [25] (p. 18). The required professional profiles are defined by a set of competencies. These competencies form the basis of various vocational training programs. Each program is linked to specific training objectives designed to help students acquire these competences. The training objectives are achieved through subjects called professional modules. These modules focus on a specialised area of knowledge and cover a series of learning outcomes (LOs) set out in the official curricula. The VET Act defines LOs as ‘a basic element of the curriculum that describes what a student is expected to know, understand and be able to do, associated with an element of competence and guiding the rest of the curriculum elements, including the assessment criteria (AC) that allow for the verification of student achievement’ [25] (p. 19). Thus, LOs and their ACs become the core element around which teaching intervention are designed.

However, the different LOs are not isolated components independent of each other, as they acquire their true meaning and usefulness when the ability to use them in an integrated way to deal with complex situations in real professional development is acquired. Therefore, the effective acquisition of professional competencies requires, on the one hand, an integrated view of the different knowledge and skills, i.e., the learning outcomes addressed in the different modules that make up a degree, and, on the other hand, continuous updating of the learning outcomes in line with technical progress and changes in sector regulations in order to meet the new skills demanded by companies.

The alignment between training curricula and professional competencies requires continuous communication between vocational training centres, companies, sectoral associations, educational and environmental administrations, establishing collaboration agreements and meetings that help to specify needs, resources, funding and tools [30]. Once training needs are identified, VET centres should design learning activities aligned with official curricula while incorporating new industry skills, ensuring an integrated approach to achieving required competencies. To this end, it is necessary to adopt innovative teaching methods contextualised to the specific level and professional profile and to design activities representative of future professional development, mediated by innovative teaching resources and means that are complementary and useful for the integrated acquisition of the required skills. In the articulation between knowledge, procedures and skills specific to vocational training, it is particularly necessary to have physical and technical resources and equipment in the workshops. These spaces allow students to use real tools, machinery, equipment, instruments and materials that reproduce authentic working conditions, thus promoting the acquisition of professional skills through the integration of theory and practice [31].

This mission involves combining multiple teaching strategies and methods that should be contextualised to the specific level and discipline to cater for the different learning styles among students. These methods range from project-based learning to direct instruction, which, for their practical implementation, require the development of innovative teaching materials aligned with the learning objectives set, acting as a support that connects theory and practice and facilitates the acquisition of the learning outcomes [32,33,34,35,36,37].

VET linked to the urban water cycle is characterised by its multidisciplinary nature, integrating knowledge of hydraulics, electrical and civil engineering. In addition to this theoretical content, there are practical procedures such as pipe installation, engine maintenance and welding, aligned with the professional skills required by companies of the sector. Therefore, in the specific field of urban water, students must understand phenomena such as pressure losses in a pipe or the characteristic curves of a hydraulic pump, and they must also be able to select the appropriate equipment, assemble and connect pipes, valves, pumps and their corresponding hydraulic and electrical components, take measurements for testing, commissioning and maintaining equipment and facilities. This training context therefore requires specific resources—pumps, valves, cutting machinery, pipes, among others—used through diverse, progressive and complementary teaching methods that provide an integrated view of the system. A comprehensive approach to the design of specific teaching resources could facilitate a more integrated view of the training program.

In a previous literature review [38], the authors concluded that the use of test benches to facilitate training in the field of water engineering is a widespread practice in educational centres around the world and become valuable resources for facilitating the acquisition of complex knowledge and skills through learning tasks that closely resemble real professional practice. These publications describe teaching plants for the experimental development of specific practical activities for determining pump characteristic curves or determining pressure losses, among other aspects associated with fluid mechanics covered in different university engineering degrees [39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47]. None of these experiences address aspects related to facility maintenance or operation of water networks. From a didactic point of view, all papers reviewed express that pilot plants are formative in nature and, therefore, aim to improve teaching and learning processes. However, few of them offer conclusions on the improvement of learning outcomes achieved by students through academic results or the acquisition of competences through achievement indicators. The design of didactic plants specifically intended to support teaching and learning processes in VET and focused on the operation and maintenance of continuously operating facilities is novel.

1.5. Research Motivation and Study Aim

The digitalisation of the urban water cycle and the incorporation of smart technologies in supply and distribution systems have generated new training demands. The emergence of sensors, advanced monitoring systems, predictive models and data analysis tools have transformed operation, maintenance and management processes. In consequence, future professionals are required to acquire technical and digital skills that allow them to function in highly technological environments. However, in vocational training, existing resources often fail to replicate real work conditions or support the development of integrated skills that combine technical, digital, and transversal competencies. In this context, the need to develop innovative educational resources that simulate real operating conditions and that support active learning methodologies focused on meaningful learning, problem solving and collaborative work is identified.

A digitalized teaching tool that simulates the operation and maintenance of supply networks brings students closer to real professional contexts, improving process understanding and skill acquisition. It also could enhance employability by aligning training with evolving labour market needs.

This study was developed at the IES Beatriu Fajardo de Mendoza located in Benidorm in the province of Alicante (Region of Valencia, Spain). Alicante is one of the provinces in Spain with the highest water stress in Spain. The IES Beatriu is the only centre that provides Vocational Training studies related to urban water management in Alicante. This centre began to teach the title of Technician in water treatment networks and plants in the 2019/20 academic year. Subsequently, in the 2021/22 academic year, the centre added the Higher Technician Degree in Water Management to its training offer, becoming the only educational centre in the province of Alicante that provides vocational training related to the urban water cycle. From the outset, it was clear that an effective educational approach required building a training ecosystem around the urban water cycle, using innovative technical and teaching resources, contextualized methodologies, and close collaboration with industry and universities. Since 2022, the centre has led an action-research process to improve teaching and learning in line with urban water sector profiles, integrating disciplinary, pedagogical, and technological perspectives under the TPACK model. A large part of educational research should be carried out from a practical perspective, promoting the research role of teachers, in close collaboration with university professors, as this would provide a basis for the development of teaching resources, curricular approaches and evaluation procedures that support innovation in teaching practice.” [48] (p. 86). However, educational research in vocational training in Spain is limited—especially research led by teachers—partly due to the lack of practical, classroom-focused proposals [49,50].

The lead researcher has served since 2021/22 as tutor for the first year of the intermediate program in water networks and water treatment plants, and as a water management lecturer. Previously, he spent 20 years working as a chemical engineer in companies and applied research institutions focused on urban and industrial water and wastewater systems.

This work is part of the research within the framework of the thesis “The test bench as a collaborative teaching resource for the integrated acquisition of competencies in vocational training programmes in the field of the urban water cycle” within the doctoral programme “Water and Sustainable Development” of the University Institute of Water and Environmental Sciences of the University of Alicante. It is hypothesised that the incorporation of innovative didactic resources oriented toward the simulation of real-world scenarios, through a multidisciplinary, collaborative, and project-based approach, will significantly contribute to improving learning outcomes and the acquisition of professional competencies in vocational training programmes related to urban water management.

The objective of the study described in this article was to design a didactic resource that supports training activities related to various learning outcomes included in the modules of intermediate and advanced vocational training programmes focused on the urban water cycle. The resource aims to facilitate the acquisition of required competencies from an integrated perspective of the professional profile, while incorporating and contextualising new digitalisation-related skills. The result is the design of a teaching plant equipped with sensors (flow, pressure, levels, etc.) that simulates and enables the operation and maintenance of a drinking water supply and distribution network, including a leak management unit in accordance with Spanish regulations. Through different practical activities, students will be able to collect and analyse operational data, calculate management indicators (such as non-revenue water or technical hydraulic performance), and operate and maintain the plant following real supply network service procedures. These practical activities are expected to help students acquire professional competencies in water digitalisation and contribute to students’ employability by aligning training activities with the technological and operational practices currently adopted by water utilities.

This work is also part of the tasks included in the “Digital Water Learning Hub” project, selected in the call for grants for the implementation of innovation and applied research projects and knowledge transfer in vocational training in 2023 by the Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sport, within the framework of the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan, financed by the European Union, Next Generation EU.

At the present stage, this study reports the design and pedagogical alignment of an educational simulation plant developed within an ongoing action-research framework. The work focuses on the systematic identification of professional competencies, learning outcomes, and assessment criteria, and on their translation into a coherent teaching resource through a backward design approach integrated with the TPACK model. Although the plant has been physically designed and its educational uses have been specified, its empirical validation in real training contexts has not yet been carried out. Consequently, the expected impacts on learning outcomes, skills acquisition and employability should be interpreted as hypotheses derived from the design rationale and the identified training needs, which will be tested and validated in subsequent research phases.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Methodological Framework of the Research

The different tasks carried out, as well as those planned, are part of action research led by the teaching team. This study adopts a mixed-methods approach within an ongoing action-research framework that combines quantitative and qualitative techniques. This approach makes it possible to evaluate not only the learning outcomes, but also the students’ perception of their learning and the adequacy of the plant to the professional needs of the sector. This study also involved collaboration with teachers in the field and technical experts in the sector. The physical development of the didactic plant is funded by the Ministry of Education, Vocational Training and Sports through the Digital Water Learning Hub project. The project is coordinated by the IES Beatriu Fajardo de Mendoza in Benidorm with the participation of the Pere Martell Institute in Tarragona and the water utility Fomento Agrícola Castellonense (FACSA), a company that provides updated information on the training needs of the sector and collaborates in the definition of the teaching resource [51].

This research was structured into 6 interconnected tasks. Tasks A, B and C have been completed and are presented in this article including the plan for the validation of the plant as an effective didactic resource:

A.

Identification of the training needs of both students and professional sector within the urban water cycle through a rigorous diagnosis based on bibliographic sources, interviews with teachers and companies, and curricular analysis. This diagnosis guided the design of the teaching resource from a disciplinary perspective. The centre has established several actions that allow it to understand first-hand the training needs of companies. Since 2023, it has organised the “Water Day in Vocational Education and Training” event, which brings together companies from the sector, educational institutions and the regional education authority (Valencian Community). The 2024 edition focused on discussing the training needs of the sector at the VET level, emphasising digitalisation, soft skills, and the integration of knowledge and skills for problem solving [52]. In 2025, the centre organised, at the request of the regional education authority, the so-called Talent-PIME [53], a meeting between companies in the sector and vocational training centres aimed at identifying areas for improvement in the training provided, aligning it with the current needs of companies, and facilitating business collaboration in student training. Moreover, in 2024 the centre signed a collaboration agreement with the company Hidraqua, the main operator of urban water services in Benidorm [54], and in 2025 with the Water Institute of the University of Alicante [55], with the aim of carrying out actions to update the disciplinary knowledge of the teaching staff. Finally, it is worth noting that the centre maintains numerous internship agreements with practically all urban water service operators in the Valencian Community, which provides continuous feedback on potential improvements to the basic training of students before they begin their company internship period.

B.

Contextualisation of the process of designing practical activities based on active methodologies—especially project-based learning and collaborative activities—that foster the integration of curricular knowledge and techniques, as well as the development of transversal competencies, guiding the design of the learning activities to be implemented through the didactic plant. From a pedagogical perspective, this action focused on adapting teaching–learning processes to vocational training for technicians in urban water management and treatment. In vocational training, active methodologies are highly relevant for developing professional skills, complementing—rather than replacing—direct instruction [56]. Although there is extensive literature highlighting the potential benefits of applying the Project-Based Learning (PBL) approach [57,58,59] its implementation is not without risks [60,61]. A comprehensive analysis of regulations, teacher coordination, spaces, planning, and technical and financial resources led to the development of a plan to implement project-based learning (PBL), tailored to the urban water cycle curriculum and its professional context [34]. A pilot inter-modular project was also implemented [62]. Finally, in the pedagogical field, an exploratory study was conducted on the perceived usefulness for learning of the different teaching resources and methods used during the 2024–2025 academic year. This study indicated that there are different learning styles in the classroom that justify the use of diverse methods and resources to facilitate learning, but also that the resources perceived as most useful are those that simulate real professional activity using project-based learning approaches [63].

C.

Design of a digital and flexible teaching resource capable of simulating real operation and maintenance processes in water supply and distribution systems, incorporating emerging technologies and digitalisation criteria, considering the information obtained in the previous tasks and developed in collaboration with the integrated water utility FACSA. The outcome of this process is described in detail in this document.

Tasks planned for the next academic year:

D.

Implementation of the teaching resource in real training contexts, ensuring its alignment with the learning outcomes established in the professional modules of the vocational training programs.

E.

Evaluation of the impact of the resource on learning outcomes and skills acquisition through qualitative and quantitative assessment tools that allow measurement of its pedagogical effectiveness.

F.

Assessment of the perceptions of students, teachers and sector stakeholders regarding the professional relevance of the competences developed.

This study is grounded in an action-research methodology structured as a cyclical process of planning, action, observation and reflection. This article focuses on the planning and action phases, which include the diagnosis of training needs and the design of the teaching plant. The observation and reflection phases, corresponding to implementation, evaluation and iterative improvement, will be developed in subsequent research stages. Figure 1 summarises the action-research cycle adopted in this study and clarifies the scope of the research phases addressed in the present manuscript.

The planning phase involved a systematic diagnosis of training needs through curricular analysis, literature review, interviews with teachers and professionals, and continuous interaction with water utilities and sectoral stakeholders. This diagnosis guided the selection of professional competencies, learning outcomes and assessment criteria relevant to the operation, maintenance and management of drinking water supply networks.

The action phase consisted of the pedagogical and technical design of the teaching installation, including the definition of learning activities, the selection of technological components and the specification of operating modes aligned with the identified learning outcomes.

The subsequent phases—observation and reflection—will be developed during the implementation and evaluation of the plant in real training contexts and are therefore outside the scope of the present manuscript.

2.2. Backward Design

To design the teaching resource that would meet the proposed objective, a backward design model was used, aligned with the teaching framework known as the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) model.

Instructional design models are tools that help to plan, develop and evaluate educational materials in a systematic way. Although there have been many models since the 1960s, they all share essential steps such as analysing needs, designing solutions, developing resources, implementing them and evaluating them [64]. Among others, backward design is an educational planning approach that begins by clearly defining the desired learning outcomes, rather than the content to be covered. Based on these learning outcomes (LOs) and their assessment criteria (ACs), teaching activities are designed to support their achievement, avoiding content-driven or purposeless tasks.

In this study, within the context of vocational training, a similar but broader approach is proposed. Starting from a multidisciplinary professional context—urban water supply and sanitation management—that requires specific competencies defined by official curricula and industry needs, relevant learning outcomes (LOs) and their assessment criteria (ACs) are identified. Based on these, a range of learning activities (e.g., PBL, guided practice, lectures, research, and demonstrations) is designed to integrate these elements. Finally, an integrative teaching resource is developed—a simulation plant for urban water networks—to support the overall teaching–learning process [65,66].

The backward design model guided the identification of learning outcomes and assessment criteria most relevant to professional practice in the management of urban water networks. Rather than starting from available equipment, the design began by selecting LOs/ACs from 13 VET modules. For example:

• LO HRA-47 (“Determine hydraulic parameters in water networks”) and AC379–385 required the inclusion of pressure transducers and electromagnetic flowmeters, enabling students to calculate head losses and hydraulic performance indices.
• LO ORI-134 (“Commission water networks”) required the ability to perform functional tests, which led to the incorporation of leak detection mechanisms, manometers and sector valves in the plant.

This alignment between assessment criteria and elements to include in the training plant ensured that every component of the plant is linked to an explicit competence.

2.3. Technological–Pedagogical Integration: The TPACK Model

The TPACK teaching model is based on the combination of three dimensions to be considered in teaching: technological, pedagogical and content knowledge [67]. The TPACK model provides a framework that integrates technology, pedagogy, and subject content to enable meaningful, contextualized teaching and promote effective practices across learning environments and modalities. Its implementation not only enhances the teaching–learning process but also helps prepare students to meet the challenges of a constantly evolving world [68]. However, research on the TPACK model in STEM contexts remains limited. Most studies focus on its application to traditional STEM subjects—science, technology, engineering, and mathematics—rather than broader or integrated contexts [69].

The value of TPACK lies in how these three types of knowledge are combined. It is not enough to know technology or pedagogy separately: teachers must know what technology to use, how to use it pedagogically, and how it improves understanding of the content. The central point of the model is the intersection of the three areas, where truly meaningful technological integration for learning is achieved [70,71].

The application of the TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) model to the design of the training plant is based on integrating three core dimensions—technology, pedagogy, and subject content—to achieve meaningful, contextualized learning. These dimensions were applied as follows:

• Content Knowledge (CK): This is applied through the definition of techniques and technologies specific to urban water management and treatment. It includes knowledge of the integral water cycle, hydraulics, and maintenance processes. In the methodological procedure, this dimension is reflected in establishing the professional reference framework and selecting technically consistent learning outcomes (LO).
• Pedagogical Knowledge (PK): This dimension is applied in the selection of teaching methodologies, such as project-based learning (PBL), guided practices, or demonstrations. It also involves analysing official curricula to ensure the plant design allows for the verification of the assessment criteria (AC) established by regulations.
• Technological Knowledge (TK): This refers to the technological components that make up the physical plant, such as sensors (pressure, flow, pH, level), programmable logic controllers (PLC), SCADA systems, and design software like Autodesk AutoCAD.

The key to the TPACK model in this project lies in the integration of technology, pedagogy, and content, rather than treating them separately as shown in Figure 2. The plant is not an end in itself but a pedagogical tool designed to achieve 40 selected learning outcomes and their associated assessment criteria, linking the technological reality of the water sector—such as digitalization and IoT—with the training needs of future technicians.

The methodology used considers the above dimensions and proposes a series of steps that could be applied to the contextualised backward design of teaching materials in other professional fields. The steps followed in our case are shown in

Table 1. Methodology for the design of teaching resources contextualised to a professional field.

Step	TPACK Dimension
1. Reference framework for the development of professional activity	A
2. Analysis of the curricula and selection of technically consistent competencies	B-A
3. Identification of the professional modules involved and selection of their respective technically consistent learning outcomes an assessment criteria	B-A
4. Varied proposal of teaching-learning activities	B
5. Specification of the main components of the teaching plant	C
6. Preparation of the conceptual diagram of the teaching plant	B
7. Description of the operating modes of the teaching plant	C

.

Autodesk AutoCAD software was used to draw the conceptual diagrams.

The reference framework refers to the common professional activity connected with the general competence of the degrees tackled. In our case we have chosen assembly, operation and maintenance of drinking water networks. Other frameworks could be sewage networks, wastewater treatment plants or drinking water treatment plants, but our selection was taken considering the feedback we got on current needs of water companies. This issue is further developed by analysing the list of professional competencies that appear in the official curricula. In this way, it was determined what specific knowledge and what skills and techniques the student are expected to develop regarding the reference professional activity (

Table 2. General competency for intermediate level vs. advanced level.

Technician in Water Networks and Treatment Plants 1	Higher Technician in Water Management 2
Assemble, operate and maintain water networks, as well as operate and maintain water treatment plant equipment and facilities, applying current regulations, quality protocols, safety and occupational risk prevention protocols, ensuring their functionality and respect for the environment.	Manage the efficient use of water, organising and developing the assembly, commissioning, operation and maintenance of water networks and treatment plants, applying quality requirements for both facilities and water, and the occupational risk prevention and environmental protection measures required by current regulations.

¹ Royal Decree 114/2017, of 17 February; ² Royal Decree 113/2017, of 17 February.

) that guided the selection of learning outcomes and their evaluation criteria (Column 1 of Table 5).

The selection of professional competences, learning objectives and evaluation criteria was carried out using a criterion of technical coherence with the reference professional activity with the support of specialist technicians from the company FACSA within the framework of the “Digital Water learning Hub” project. From this list, it was up to the teaching team to propose teaching activities that facilitate the acquisition of the different selected learning outcomes (column 2, Table 5). These activities are varied in length, difficulty and scope and in their methodological approach, but it is beyond the scope of this article to describe each activity in detail.

Finally, the teaching team, with the support of the collaborating company, identified what technological elements would be necessary to be able to carry out the proposed activities. For example, the learning outcome “Perform non-welded joints of different types using different techniques (TMU-19)” and its assessment criteria “listing the non-welded joint systems in pipes and equipment (AC158), relate the types of joints to the type of pipe (AC159), determine the sequence of operations to make the joint, and the tools re-quired in each case (AC160–165)” (Dimension A) guided the design of specific activities (dimension B) such as: identifying joint types in the plant, replacing pipe sections, assembling connections using different techniques. Consequently, the teaching plant (Dimension C) has to include a pipe network with sections of different materials (polyethylene, PVC, cast iron, multilayer) using different types of non-welded joints (socket-bell, mechanical joint, compression ring, threaded, flanged, glued and grooved) and welded joints for plastic elements (electrofusion and thermofusion). The integration of these dimensions seeks to guide the design of the didactic plant and its modes of operation.

3. Results

3.1. Establishment of the Guidelines for the Design of the Teaching Plant

The design criteria for the teaching facility are outlined below:

• Based on the defined general competencies, the teaching resource should reflect real professional practice.
• It should provide an integrated framework encompassing multiple professional competencies.
• It should contribute to the acquisition of professional competences covered in both intermediate and advanced VET levels.
• It should contribute to the acquisition of different LOs covered in different disciplinary modules of the different courses of the levels involved, allowing for the verification of official assessment criteria.
• It should enable the design and implementation of individual and collaborative learning or activities using a variety of teaching approaches and methods that allow for the use of the selected ACs established in the official curricula associated with the LOs addressed with the teaching facility.
• It should be reusable and modifiable for future cohorts of students.

Thus, the starting point for guiding the design of the teaching resource was the respective general competences that intermediate and advanced level students must acquire, which are shown in Table 2.

The general competence at both levels distinguishes between activities related to water networks and treatment plants. In this study, the scope of the resource was defined as the acquisition of competences related to “the assembly, operation and maintenance of water networks” for intermediate-level technicians and “managing the efficient use of water, organising and developing the assembly, commissioning, operation and maintenance of networks” for advanced-level technicians.

This approach enables the simulation of both water supply and sewer networks that enables students to carry out activities that facilitate their learning to assemble, commission, operate, maintain and manage water networks. In line with this, a selection of professional and personal competences defined in the respective official curricula that are closely related to these professional activities was made. Both degrees cover the acquisition of a total of 24 professional competencies.

Table 3. Selected professional and personal competencies.

Professional Competencies (Technical Skills)
Intermediate Degree in Networks and Treatment Plants	Advanced Level in Water Management
Associated with construction and assembly
(d) Gather the resources and means necessary to undertake the installation, operation or maintenance of water networks.	(b) Plan and organise the execution of construction works, and the assembly of water networks and installations based on the project.
(e) Rethink the installation of water network elements, ensuring the feasibility of the assembly and reporting any contingencies.	(c) Conduct tasks related to the assembly of water networks and installations.
(g) Assemble auxiliary mechanical equipment and elements associated with water networks and treatment plants, ensuring their functionality.	(n) Configure water networks and installations, determining the characteristics of the elements that constitute them.
(h) Assemble electrical systems associated with water network and treatment plant equipment, ensuring their functionality.	(k) Organise the assembly of mechanical and electrical equipment in water networks and installations.
Associated with commissioning
(f) Commission water networks, conducting the necessary checks to ensure their correct functionality.	(d) Plan the commissioning of water networks and facilities.
(j) Perform functional and regulatory tests on water networks to check and adjust their operation.	(e) Conduct tasks for the commissioning of water networks and installations.
	(h) Verify the suitability of functional and regulatory tests for the commissioning of water networks and facilities.
Associated with preventive and corrective maintenance
(n) Locate malfunctions and breakdowns in water networks and treatment plant equipment, applying established procedures.	(i) Develop preventive maintenance plans for water networks and facilities.
(ñ) Carry out operations associated with the maintenance and upkeep of water treatment plant networks, in accordance with the stipulated quality, safety and environmental protection conditions.	(j) Resolve breakdowns or malfunctions in water networks and facilities.
Associated with process control and management
(i) Carry out operations associated with the operation of water networks and treatment plants, under the stipulated conditions of quality, safety and environmental protection.	(a) Determine the control operations of the processes involved in water management.
(k) Take representative samples, data and parameter records in accordance with existing specifications in water networks.	(f) Organise operations for the operation of water networks and facilities.
	(g) Carry out operational tasks in water networks and facilities.
	(l) Control processes using automatic systems in water networks and facilities.
	(ñ) Carry out the necessary management operations for the efficient use of water in a facility.
Social skills
(p) Adapt to new work situations arising from technological and organisational changes in production processes, updating knowledge, using existing resources for lifelong learning and information and communication technologies.	(p) Adapt to new work situations, keeping up to date with scientific, technical and technological knowledge related to their professional environment, managing their training and existing resources for lifelong learning and using information and communication technologies.
(q) Act responsibly and autonomously within their area of competence, organising and carrying out the work assigned to them, cooperating or working as part of a team with other professionals in the workplace.	(q) Resolve situations, problems or contingencies with initiative and autonomy within their area of competence, with creativity, innovation and a spirit of improvement in their personal work and that of team members.

shows the different professional and personal competencies selected from the whole list of required competencies to obtain the qualification as defined in the official curricula that can be seen in Appendix A.

The acquisition of professional and personal skills is achieved through the achievement of a series of learning outcomes (LOs) that are organised into modules (subjects) of a disciplinary nature. The regulations indicate which modules are involved in the acquisition of the various skills required and specify the LOs and their respective ACs associated with each module.

The intermediate VET degree on water networks programme involves 747 assessment criteria associated with 93 learning outcomes distributed across 17 disciplinary modules. The advanced VET degree on water management involves 710 assessment criteria associated with 92 learning outcomes distributed across 17 disciplinary modules. Three of these modules are shared between both levels. Therefore, when redundancies are removed, the combined programme involves 169 learning outcomes and 1349 assessment criteria distributed across 31 modules over four academic years.

For the analysis and selection of ACs and LOs that guided the design of the training plant, the LOs, ACs and Modules defined by the regulations were coded using the system shown in Figure 3. Annex 1 shows the complete list of LOs required to obtain the intermediate and advanced qualifications. The complete lists of required learning outcomes and assessment criteria defined by the regulations are available for consultation as Supplementary Materials (Tables S1 and S2).

Table 4. List of modules and references.

Ref	Module
GM	Intermediate Degree (Grado Medio)
RRA	Replanteo de Redes de Agua (Setting out in water networks)
ETA	Estaciones de Tratamiento de Agua (Water treatment plants)
IER	Instalaciones Electricas en Redes de Agua (Electrical installations in water networks)
TMU	Técnicas de Mecanizado y Unión (Machining and joining techniques)
MPS	Montaje y Puesta en Servicio de redes de agua (Assembly and commissioning of water networks)
CA	Calidad del Agua (Water quality)
CR	Construcción de Redes y plantas de tratamiento de agua (Construction of water networks and treatment plants)
MEI	Mantenimiento de Equipos e Instalaciones (Maintenance of equipment and facilities)
HRA	Hidráulica en Redes de Agua (Hydraulics and water networks)
MR	Mantenimiento de Redes (Network maintenance)
MMI	Montaje y Mantenimiento de Instalciones de agua (Installation and maintenance of water systems)
PGM	Proyecto intermodular de Grado Medio (Inter-modular project)
INGM	Inglés Profesional de Grado Medio (Professional English—Intermediate Degree)
DIGM	Digitalización aplicada al Sistema productivo en Grado Medio (Digitalisation applied to the production system—ID)
GS	Grado Superior (Advanced Degree)
PYR	Planificación Y Replanteo (Planning and layout)
CTA	Calidad y Tratamiento del Agua (Water quality and treatment)
GEA	Gestión Eficiente del Agua (Efficient water management)
CREA	Configuración de Redes de Agua (Water network configuration)
SEI	Sistemas Eléctricos en Instalaciones de agua (Electrical systems in water installations)
ATI	Automatismos y Telecontrol en Instalaciones de agua (Automation and remote control in water installations)
ORI	Operaciones en Redes e Instalaciones (Operations in water networks and installations)
GCM	Gestión de operaciones, Calidad y Medioambiente (Operations, quality and environmental management)
TMI	Técnicas de Montaje de Instalaciones de agua (Assembly techniques in water facilities)
TC	Técnicas de Comunicación y relaciones (Communication and relations techniques)
PS	Proyecto Intermodular en gestion eficiente del agua 1º (Inter-module project on efficient water management, 1st year)
PS	Proyecto Intemodular en gestion eficiente del agua 2º (Inter-module project on efficient water management in 2nd year)
INGS	Inglés Profesional de Grado Superior (Professional English-Advanced)
DIGS	Digitalización aplicada a los sistemas productivos de Grado Superior (Digitisation applied to the production system AD)
GMGS	Módulos Comunes en GM y GS (Common modules in Intermediate and Advanced degrees)
IPE1	Itinerario Personal para la Empleabilidad 1 (Personal itinerary for employability 1)
IPE2	Itinerario Personal para la Empleabilidad 2 (Personal itinerary for employability 2)
SUS	Sostenibilidad aplicada al Sistema Productivo (Sustainability applied to the production system)

shows the references assigned to the modules in the addressed VET programs, using their Spanish initials. These references allow quick identification of the module associated with each learning outcome (LO) and assessment criterion (AC).

Given that the aim is to facilitate the acquisition of skills in the assembly, maintenance and operation of water networks, the teaching plant must have, on the one hand, an operational section that is always running to allow students to plan and carry out operation and maintenance activities and, on the other hand, a section that can be connected to the former and allows for the planning and assembly of different types of installations. Furthermore, to simulate different stages of the cycle (collection well, high network, regulation tank, distribution network, sanitation network), the plant must include different connected sections.

Following the backward design methodology used to define the plant,

Table 5. Learning outcomes and assessment criteria guide, proposed activities and conditions for the teaching plant.

Considered Learning Outcomes and Associated Assessment Criteria	Teaching-Learning Activity	Components Teaching Plant
RELATED TO THE INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING OF NETWORKS Draw diagrams of electrical panels using conventional symbols (IER-11), which involves relating the symbols to real elements (AC93), knowing the components of electrical circuits and their function (AC94) and representing them graphically using drawing software that allows the simulation of circuits in accordance with regulations, including numbered terminal strips and terminals (AC95–100). Relate electrical systems and their functions to the operating environment in water network management (SEI-121). To do this, electrical equipment installed in supply networks must be handled, identifying its function, equipment and components (AC945–947). Perform non-welded joints of different types using different techniques (TMU-19). This involves listing the non-welded joint systems in pipes and equipment (AC158), knowing how to relate the types of joints to the type of pipe (material and diameter) (AC159), determining the sequence of operations to make the joint, and the tools required in each case (AC160–165). Weld plastic pipes and fittings, analysing the characteristics of the materials to be joined (TMU-21). To do this, students must know and be able to use equipment, perform plastic welding techniques (AC173–179) and identify the risks associated with this (AC181). Identify the different types of materials used in networks (TMI-144) (AC1132 and AC1133). Perform non-welded joints using different techniques (TMI146) (AC1147–1154). Perform assembly and maintenance operations on equipment and elements of water installations and networks, applying assembly techniques and interpreting plans and manufacturer’s instructions (TMI-148). To do this, select the tools, materials and techniques necessary for the assembly of elements and installations, fix and level equipment, pipes and accessories, interconnect equipment and elements in water installations and networks, and identify the main mechanisms of electromechanical groups. (AC1168–1175) Plan the assembly of networks considering the elements to be assembled and the required work procedures (MPS-23 and MPS-24) such as stowage, extension, anchoring, connection, flanging, welding and threading. This requires organising the work in phases with timetables and selecting the relevant tools and techniques (AC188–203), then proceeding with the assembly (MPS-25) of sections or network elements to finally prepare and carry out operational and commissioning tests (MPS-25 and MPS-26), which involves checking for leaks, checking manoeuvres, the functionality of all elements, cleaning and disinfection, checking flow rates and various measurements (AC204–239). Performing assemblies (LO: ORI-133), commissioning networks (LO: ORI-134) RELATED TO NETWORK MAINTENANCE Draw up preventive maintenance plans (MR-52) based on technical documentation and plans, extracting operations and frequencies (AC407–412) Carry out scheduled preventive maintenance operations (MR-53) according to the scheduled plan, using the techniques learned with the appropriate tools and elements (AC413–420) Perform corrective maintenance operations (MR-53) using the techniques learned with the appropriate tools and elements (AC421–427) Apply occupational risk prevention measures in maintenance operations (MR-54) (AC 429–431) Use measurement and control instruments (MEI-41) (AC338) for electromechanical equipment, understand their function in an installation as a whole (MEI-42) (AC340) and carry out the planned maintenance operations with the appropriate means (MEI-43) (AC345–353). Measure electrical quantities and perform safety checks on operating equipment (LO: IER-14) with appropriate instruments and interpret the values observed to recognise the presence of anomalies (AC 117–122). Identify risks and use the required safety measures when handling electrical equipment with the appropriate tools (IER16) (AC134–135). Perform electrical measurements and electrical safety checks with appropriate equipment and interpret the results obtained (SEI-121). To do this, use the appropriate measuring instruments, interpreting the values obtained from the measured parameters and recording them (AC 951–954). Implement preventive maintenance plans (ORI-135) and corrective maintenance plans (ORI-136). (AC1051, 1052, 1056, 1062–1066, 1068, 1070, 1072) RELATED TO NETWORK MANAGEMENT Characterise the urban water cycle (HRA-46), which involves identifying the phases and stages that comprise it and understanding its fundamentals (AC371–375), and determining the effects of water flow in pipes and the principles that govern them (HRA-47). To do this, it is necessary to understand the main hydraulic parameters (velocity, flow rate, pressure), the concepts of head loss, and to obtain measurements and determine operating parameters (AC379–385). Characterise the operation of networks (HRA-49, HRA-50), identifying the function of their components (AC387–439) (AC394–398) and, with all this, characterise and improve the efficiency of the network (HRA-50). Configure distribution and sanitation networks (CREA115 to CREA118), for which leak detection equipment, meters, measuring instruments and control devices must be described and used. Perform essential calculations to determine hydraulic parameters—such as pressures, flow rates, pressure losses and evaluate hydraulic performance. (AC905–937) by interpreting fundamental hydraulic equations. Propose measures to minimise water losses in an installation by analysing their causes (GEA-114). To do this, estimate unregistered water and various hydraulic efficiency indicators and propose measures to identify and reduce losses in the network (sectorisation, pressure management, minimum night-time flow rates, etc.) (AC898–904). Be familiar with the instrumentation, control and measurement elements used in water networks and facilities, assess the values of the recorded parameters (ATI-126), classify measurement sensors (ATI-126) according to their operation and application. Classify the signals generated by transducers used in water networks and facilities, listing the signal conditioning circuits and acquisition and measurement equipment associated with analogue and digital transducers, recognising the measurement instruments used in relation to variables specific to water networks and facilities. (AC993 to 1000). Characterise electronic and control voltage diagrams and identify components (ATI-127), which requires interpreting single-line diagrams and their correspondence with components, the control voltage circuit and protection elements (AC1001–CE1004). Use a SCADA to control operating parameters and adjust system conditions (ATI 126, 127, 131 and 132). This requires the use of graphical user interfaces as human-machine dialogue elements, data acquisition and control signal generation, the use of a SCADA system in facility control, simulation of the operation of a water management facility through a SCADA system, operation of the different elements of water networks, in a remote control simulator, control the different parameters and produce reports using chronological, historical and statistical analyses. (AC1032–1044). RELATED TO DIGITISATION APPLIED TO NETWORKS Compare digitised systems with classic systems, identifying the improvements introduced (DIGM-76). To do this, the digital enabling technologies that characterise a digitised system must be identified and the implementation of digital technologies (sensors, data, automation, communication, etc.) must be related to process optimisation. (AC613, 617, 620). Analyse the concept of digitalisation and its impact on productive sectors, taking into account the company’s activity and identifying characteristic IT (information technology) and OT (operational technology) environments. (DIGS-155) Characterise the digital enabling technologies necessary for the adaptation/transformation of companies to digital environments, describing their characteristics and applications (DIGS-156). This requires contextualising the concept of digitalisation, identifying typical digitalisation technologies and identifying the improvements produced by the implementation of enabling technologies in urban water management. (AC 1229, 1231, 1233, 1234, 1240, 1241–1242 DIGS)	Draw the single-line diagram and control diagram of the pumping unit (direct start and with variable speed drive). Prepare the electrical diagram of the complete teaching plant with conventional electrical symbols using appropriate software. Analysis of terminal strip labelling. Inventory of components and terminal numbering. Inventory of accessories and hydraulic components and preparation of a technical data sheet book. Identify the different types of joints present in the teaching plant. Replace sections of the teaching plant using the relevant joining techniques and elements. Connect an assembly to the teaching plant involving different non-welded and welded connection techniques in plastic using electrofusion or thermofusion, gluing, and clamps. Handling of various tools (radial saw, drill, torque wrench, electrofusion equipment, thermofusion equipment). Draw up action plans and timetables: (a) Modifications to the teaching facility (b) Assemblies complementary to the teaching plant Execute assembly: (a) Plant modifications (b)Complementary installations -Connections -Manholes -Sensors -Meters Preparation and execution of leak-testing procedures. Based on technical drawings and manuals develop an asset hierarchy and maintenance plan frequencies, spare parts, etc.). Inventory of equipment and components. Prepare equipment files Create databases of manufacturer manuals Design a spare parts warehouse Identify occupational hazards in network assembly and operation tasks. Carry out the maintenance operations set out in the maintenance plan for the teaching facility and record the actions taken Monitor relevant parameters using a thermal imaging camera. Measure electricity consumption and voltage using clamp meters, record the values obtained and interpret the results. Prepare preventive/corrective intervention records Repair leaks. Replace components (sensors, accessories, pipe sections). Prepare a process diagram of the teaching plant. Prepare a complete hydraulic diagram with all the components of the teaching plant. Report analysing the flow and pressure records in the network. Determination of pump characteristic curves. Determination of linear and singular point pressure losses. Solve problems (Darcy Weisbach/Hazen Williams). Perform a hydraulic balance of the system represented by the teaching plant. With recorded data, analysis of minimum night-time flow, leak estimation, sectorisation proposal and pressure management A report has been prepared that lists the technologies with their characteristics and areas of application and the improvements they have brought about. Prepare the telemetry architecture diagram	Electrical control and command panel equipped with the relevant operating, control and power elements, with the required protection and safety elements (protections, contactors, thermal relays, variable speed drives, etc.) Equipment with electric motors (pumps) Solenoid valves Wiring of the installation to supply power to the electrical components. Pipe network with sections of different materials (polyethylene, PVC, cast iron, multilayer) using different types of non-welded joints (socket-bell, mechanical joint, compression ring, threaded, flanged, glued and grooved) and welded joints for plastic elements (electrofusion and thermofusion). Connection area for additional branches for temporary annex assemblies. Pipe network with various accessories and elements: (tanks, valves of all types, reels, elbows, collars, tees, reducers, suction cups, flow meters, pressure sensors, level sensors, pH and temperature sensors, pumps. To simulate network management: The installation of pressure gauges, pressure transducers and flow meters is required. Smart meters Pumps Control valves. Frequency converters Safety elements such as suction cups, drains, etc. Smart meters Distribution network divided into sectors. Data recording and storage To simulate network maintenance, the above elements are required, and the workshop’s existing spare parts and consumables warehouse must be adapted to meet the maintenance needs of the teaching plant. The teaching plant must have: Sensors for obtaining fundamental parameters: (Levels, electricity consumption, flow rates, water consumption, pH, temperature, pressure). Programmable logic controller Supervisory control and data acquisition system Internet connection and communication system Data dump and creation of a control panel in the cloud through cloud services that allow remote interaction with the plant

presents the selected learning outcomes (LOs) and assessment criteria (ACs) that guide the activities to be carried out, enabling evaluation of their achievement. Those corresponding to the advanced level are highlighted in bold. Based on this selection, the table also proposes teaching activities and identifies the elements the plant must include to effectively support the full development of these activities in alignment with the LOs and ACs.

Table 6. Alignment of teaching–learning activities, learning outcomes, and assessment instruments.

Teaching–Learning Activity	Related Learning Outcomes	Proposed Assessment Instrument
Drawing the single-line diagram and control diagram of the pumping unit (direct start and variable speed drive)	IER-11, IER-13, SEI-120, ATI-127	Analytical rubric (technical accuracy, standardised symbols, clarity, and correct operation)
Preparing the complete electrical diagram of the teaching plant using software	IER-11, PYR-98, ATI-127	Analytical rubric
Analysis of terminal strip labelling and numbering	IER-11, SEI-121	Checklist (correct identification and correspondence between drawings and actual installation)
Inventory of electrical components and terminal numbering	IER-11, ORI-137	Brief technical report
Inventory of accessories and hydraulic components with technical data sheets	TMI-144, CREA-117	Structured technical report
Identification of the different types of joints present in the teaching plant	TMU-19, TMI-146	Checklist
Replacement of plant sections using non-welded joint techniques	TMU-19, TMI-146, TMI-148	Practical rubric (procedure, tool use, watertightness)
Connecting an assembly to the plant using plastic welding (electrofusion/thermofusion) and mechanical joints	TMU-21, TMI-147, TMI-148	Workshop practical rubric
Handling tools (cut-off saw, drill, torque wrench, electrofusion equipment)	TMU-18, TMU-22, TMI-149	Safety and correct-use checklist
Preparation of action plans and schedules for facility modifications	MPS-23, MPS-24, ORI-133	Planning rubric
Execution of modifications and complementary assemblies in the plant	MPS-25, ORI-133	Execution rubric
Connection of branches, manholes, sensors, and meters	MPS-25, CREA-117, ATI-126	Practical rubric
Preparation and execution of leak tests	MPS-26, ORI-134	Technical checklist
Preparation of the asset tree, criticality analysis, and task plan	MR-51, ORI-135	Technical report
Inventory of plant equipment and components	MR-51, ORI-137	Checklist + report
Preparation of equipment data sheets	MR-51, ORI-137	Standardised technical report
Creation of a manufacturer manual database	ORI-137, DIGS-155	Functional checklist
Design of a spare parts warehouse	MR-51, GCM-140	Technical report with layout
Identification of occupational hazards in assembly and operation	MR-54, ORI-138	Risk analysis rubric
Execution and recording of preventive maintenance operations	MR-52, ORI-135	Checklist + maintenance log
Parameter monitoring using a thermal imaging camera	MEI-42, MEI-43	Diagnostic technical report
Measurement of electrical consumption and voltage using clamp meters	IER-14, SEI-121	Checklist + measurement record
Preparation of preventive/corrective intervention reports	MR-52, MR-53, ORI-137	Technical report
Repair of leaks	MR-53, GEA-114	Practical rubric
Replacement of sensors, accessories, or pipe sections	MR-53, TMI-148	Practical rubric
Preparation of the process diagram of the teaching plant	CREA-115, HRA-48	Technical drawing rubric
Preparation of the complete hydraulic diagram of the plant	CREA-117, CREA-118	Analytical rubric
Report analysing network flow and pressure records	HRA-47, ATI-126	Technical report
Determination of pump characteristic curves	CREA-116, HRA-47	Technical report with calculations
Determination of linear and singular pressure losses	CREA-116	Objective test + solved exercises
Solving hydraulic problems (Darcy–Weisbach / Hazen–Williams)	CREA-116	Written test
Performing a complete hydraulic balance of the installation	CREA-115, CREA-116	Technical report
Analysis of minimum night flow, sectorisation, and pressure management	GEA-114, ATI-132	Efficiency technical report
Report on applied digital technologies and introduced improvements	DIGM-76, DIGS-156	Report rubric
Preparation of the telemetry architecture diagram	ATI-130, ATI-131	Technical design rubric

includes the teaching–learning activities listed in the previous table. It links each activity with the corresponding learning outcomes (LO/RA) using the coding (IER 11, TMU 19, ORI 133, etc.) and proposes appropriate assessment instruments (rubric, checklist, objective test, or technical report), fully aligned with the type of activity and the associated assessment criteria considering that:

• Rubrics are recommended for procedural, design, and execution activities, as they allow the assessment of technical quality, methodology, autonomy, and compliance with standards.
• Checklists are most appropriate for verification tasks, particularly those related to safety, tool handling, and procedural compliance.
• Technical reports are best suited for activities involving analysis, diagnostics, calculations, planning, and decision-making, fully aligned with learning outcomes related to management, maintenance, and digitalisation.
• Objective tests are reserved for the assessment of theoretical foundations and hydraulic calculations.

In connection with the previous table,

Table 7. Examples of success indicators related to the dynamic interaction of the TPACK model.

Teaching Scenario (Example)	CK—Content Knowledge	PK—Pedagogical Knowledge	TK—Technological Knowledge	Indicator of TPACK Integration Success
1. Leak detection and estimation using minimum night flow	Principles of water losses, non-revenue water, hydraulic behaviour at low demand	Project-based learning task involving data analysis and collaborative decision-making	Smart meters, flow sensors, SCADA data logging and historical analysis tools	Students correctly estimate leakage volumes, justify assumptions using recorded data, and propose technically coherent mitigation measures
2. Pressure management through variable speed control	Relationship between pressure, demand, energy consumption and leak occurrence	Guided inquiry and problem-solving tasks comparing different operational scenarios	Frequency converters, pressure transducers, real-time SCADA visualisation	Students adjust control parameters, interpret pressure trends and explain the impact of control strategies on network performance
3. Commissioning of a supply network sector	Network commissioning procedures, valve operation sequences, regulatory checks	Scenario-based simulation and role-based collaborative work	PLC-controlled valves, sensors, alarms and SCADA interfaces	Successful TPACK integration is evidenced when students execute commissioning steps correctly, detect anomalies and document procedures following professional standards
4. Interpretation of pump characteristic curves under real operation	Pump hydraulics, characteristic curves, series and parallel operation	Learning by experimentation with guided reflection	Flow meters, pressure sensors, SCADA trend analysis and data export	Students relate experimental curves to theoretical models and explain deviations based on operational conditions and sensor data
5. Diagnosis of operational anomalies using SCADA records	Causes of abnormal hydraulic behaviour (air entrainment, cavitation, valve malfunction)	Case-based learning and diagnostic reasoning activities	Historical SCADA data, alarms, time-series analysis dashboards	Students identify probable causes of anomalies, support diagnoses with data evidence and propose corrective actions consistent with professional practice

provides concrete examples of teaching scenarios in which the three dimensions of the TPACK model interact dynamically. Each example illustrates how content knowledge, pedagogical strategies and technological tools are jointly mobilised within realistic learning situations supported by the teaching plant.

These examples illustrate that the success of the didactic plant is not determined by the presence of technology alone, but by its pedagogically meaningful integration with disciplinary content. Evidence of success emerges when students are able to use technological tools to support reasoning, decision making and professional practice, rather than merely operating the system.

3.2. Description of the Design of the Teaching Plant

3.2.1. General Considerations

The test bench is composed of three main subsystems that correspond to the main stages of the urban water cycle. The supply system simulates upstream and downstream leak management units in accordance with possible situations recorded by the Spanish administration, as shown in Figure 4.

The training plant therefore comprises the following main components:

• Collection and pumping;
• Regulation reservoir;
• Distribution pipe network with 4 sectors and sanitation network;
• Area for the assembly and temporary connection of complementary branches.

The general conceptual diagram of the teaching plant simulating a drinking water collection and distribution network is shown in Figure 5.

3.2.2. Elements Included in the Teaching Plant and Budget

Taking into account Table 5, the installation includes the incorporation of:

-

Electrical panel;

-

Programmable logic controller Schneider;

-

Data acquisition system;

-

Communication system;

-

Cloud service for monitoring, data collection and operation.

The educational installation includes a series of sensors for acquiring different network operating data:

-

Four smart meters to monitor consumption in each sector provided by Itron;

-

Two electromagnetic flow meters to monitor the volume of water abstracted and supplied to the network provided by IFM;

-

Pressure transducers in the pumping circuit, in the main artery and in each sector provided by IFM;

-

Manual pressure gauges for checking the pressure transducers;

-

Capacitive level sensors in tanks for level control and pump activation provided by IFM;

-

Water quality parameter sensors: temperature, pH provided by Hanna Instruments.

Additionally, a series of actuators for automatic and manual operation is included:

-

PLC-controlled solenoid valves to determine opening and closing times for the direction of flow to leakage or consumption to simulate demand patterns and leakage events;

-

Regulating valve provided by Hidroten;

-

Manual shut-off and non-return valves provided by Hidroten;

-

Pumping unit with two pumps in a dry chamber with positive suction provided by Xylem;

-

Two frequency converters provided by Schneider;

-

Two safety floats.

Other elements of the plant include metal support structures, two 1000 L tanks, a 50-micron filter to protect measuring equipment, pipes of different materials and diameters for educational purposes (PVC pressure, cast iron, polyethylene, multilayer, PVC drainage), elbows, tees, flanges, suction cups, connecting sleeves, etc.

The teaching plant has a total budget of €45.000.

3.2.3. Modes of Use and Operations

The plant has a control panel with the necessary electrical protections, equipped with an automatic control system where the different manoeuvres and restrictions have been programmed according to three operating modes. The system is controlled via a SCADA platform which enables three automatic operating modes:

• Closed-circuit pumping mode for testing classic hydraulic parameters;
• Pump supply network mode;
• Gravity supply network mode from the regulating tank.

The 1000-litre tank 2 acts as a collection reservoir from which a pumping system with two three-phase pumps of 0.75 kW each.

Each pump has a set of relevant actuated, manual and non-return valves, pressure gauge and pressure sensor on the discharge side, and a cartridge filter with corresponding shut-off valves for maintenance or replacement and a pressure gauge and pressure sensor that monitors the pressure on the discharge side, with all data recorded by the data acquisition system. Each pump is controlled by a frequency variator, which allows different operating conditions to be set. The pumps can operate in series or in parallel. The header tank has level sensors for starting and stopping the pumps and safety levels to prevent the pumps from running dry. In addition, a temperature sensor and a pH sensor are in this tank.

In operating mode A, the motorised valves and the 3-way valve will direct the flow in a closed circuit to the header tank itself, as shown in Figure 4. This configuration, with pressure recording, flow rates at different pump speeds or with different degrees of opening of a control valve located behind the flow meter in the recirculation line, allows different learning situations to be implemented under different classic operating conditions around pump parameters such as the determination of characteristic curves or series and parallel pump configurations, among others.

In operating mode B, valves route the flow directly to the distribution and sanitation networks, bypassing the regulating tank. The network is supplied by a pump controlled to maintain a set pressure, based on readings from pressure sensors in the main circuit.

In operating mode C, valves direct the flow to Tank 1, which serves as a regulating reservoir. The tank is equipped with level sensors and overflow alarms, with capacitive sensors controlling pump start and stop to maintain continuous availability and ensure supply to the distribution network.

In both mode B and mode C, electromagnetic flow meters allow the volume of water supplied from the catchment to be monitored, as well as the volume of water supplied to the distribution network from the regulating reservoir.

In both modes, the total flow entering the distribution network (Figure 5) is recorded and distributed among four sectors that have pressure measurement. The sectors can be isolated and, depending on the alignment of the corresponding valves, allow flow as a meshed, branched or mixed network. The water demand per sector can be established from the SCADA by time intervals of opening of the corresponding motorised valve. In turn, the water demanded in each sector can be recorded in a smart meter or diverted to simulated leaks in the sector, producing discrepancies between the total water supplied to the network and the network recorded by consumers. Typical demand curves and night-time minimum analyses can be simulated. The simulation of different scenarios, programming losses in the network, allows students, through the recording of flow rates, consumption and pressures, to analyse cases that occur in real networks and to analyse and obtain hydraulic efficiency parameters in line with the requirements established for the sector by the administration.

Each sector has a manhole for discharging recorded or leaked water, from which the water flows by gravity to a sewage collector that returns all the circulating water to the head tank.

It is possible to connect the network to branches that allow the installation of additional temporary lines for the assembly of complementary elements such as drainage chambers, chambers with suction cups, connections, meter cabinets, etc., the use of various joining techniques with different materials, and the performance of pressure tests and leak tests on the temporary assemblies.

Figure 6 illustrates the closed-circuit hydraulic configuration used in Operating Mode A, specifically designed to support learning activities related to classical hydraulic analysis under controlled conditions. This configuration allows students to analyse pump behaviour independently of the distribution network, enabling the direct experimentation with hydraulic variables such as flow rate, pressure, head losses and pump efficiency. Through the adjustment of pump rotational speed using frequency converters and the regulation of downstream control valves, students can experimentally determine pump characteristic curves and compare them with manufacturer data sheets, thereby linking theoretical models with real operational data.

From a curricular perspective, this diagram supports learning outcomes related to the determination and interpretation of hydraulic parameters in pressurised systems, particularly HRA-47 (effects of water flow in pipes) and CREA-116 (application of calculation methods related to hydraulic parameters). In addition, it contributes to the understanding of pump operation and performance, enabling activities aligned with HRA-48 and CREA-115, such as analysing series and parallel pump configurations and evaluating their influence on network behaviour. The controlled environment represented in this schematic is especially suitable for introductory experimental learning activities, encouraging a progressive acquisition of analytical skills before students face more complex operational scenarios in open distribution networks.

Figure 7 presents a detailed view of the valve system that defines the hydraulic topology of the teaching plant by directing flow towards different operating modes, including direct pumping to the network or supply via the regulating reservoir. This configuration is central to the simulation of real operational decision-making processes in drinking water systems, as it allows students to modify supply strategies and assess their hydraulic, energetic and operational implications. By selecting different valve alignments, learners can analyse the effects of pressure regulation, storage-based supply and direct pumping on network stability and efficiency.

Didactically, this diagram supports learning outcomes associated with network operation and commissioning, such as ORI-134 (commissioning of water networks) and HRA-49/HRA-50 (characterisation of network operation and efficiency). It also provides a practical framework for activities related to CREA-117 and CREA-118, enabling students to evaluate how configuration choices affect pressures, flow distribution and service conditions. Furthermore, by integrating sensor data and automated control via PLC and SCADA systems, this configuration aligns with learning outcomes related to automation and remote control, particularly ATI-126 and ATI-127, reinforcing students’ understanding of the interaction between hydraulic behaviour and digital control systems in modern water networks.

Figure 8 depicts the multi-sector distribution network and the associated sewerage return system, constituting the core of the teaching plant for simulating realistic operational, management and maintenance scenarios. The division of the network into independently monitored sectors, each equipped with pressure measurement and controlled demand, enables the reproduction of typical operating conditions encountered in real urban supply systems, such as variable consumption patterns, sector isolation and leakage events. The inclusion of return flows through the sewerage network ensures closed-loop operation while allowing for the quantitative analysis of water balances.

This configuration directly supports learning outcomes related to network management and efficiency, notably GEA-114 (proposing measures to minimise water losses) and HRA-50 (characterisation and improvement of network efficiency). By analysing discrepancies between supplied volumes and registered consumption, students can calculate non-revenue water indicators, perform minimum night flow analyses and propose sectorisation or pressure management strategies consistent with professional practice. In addition, the diagram facilitates activities aligned with ATI-131 and ATI-132, as the SCADA system enables real-time monitoring, historical data analysis and reporting. Finally, the presence of manholes and temporary connection points allows the integration of assembly, maintenance and leakage repair activities, reinforcing learning outcomes related to ORI-133, ORI-135 and ORI-136, and fostering an integrated understanding of network operation, maintenance and management.

In addition to its role in network operation and management, the assembly area represented in Figure 6 plays a key pedagogical role in the acquisition of practical skills associated with installation and commissioning at intermediate vocational training level. The availability of temporary branches, manholes and connection points enables students to carry out hands-on activities directly aligned with learning outcomes from the TMU (Machining and Joining Techniques) and MPS (Assembly and Commissioning of Water Networks) modules. In particular, this area facilitates the achievement of TMU 19 (perform non-welded joints using different techniques) and TMU 21 (weld plastic pipes and fittings), as students can practise cutting, alignment, assembly and joining of pipes made of different materials using threaded, flanged, compression, glued and electrofusion or thermofusion joints under realistic working conditions.

Furthermore, the same assembly space supports learning outcomes related to planning, execution and verification of network installation processes, such as MPS 23 and MPS 24 (planning the assembly of water supply and sanitation networks) and MPS 25/26 (execution of assembly operations and pre commissioning tests). By assembling temporary installations, performing pressure and leak tests, and subsequently dismantling or modifying the configurations, students develop procedural competence in sequencing tasks, selecting appropriate tools and techniques, and verifying compliance with technical and safety requirements. This integration of TMU and MPS learning outcomes within a single physical space promotes an authentic learning environment in which manual skills, technical reasoning and procedural discipline are developed simultaneously, closely reflecting the realities of professional practice in the installation and commissioning of urban water networks at operator level.

3.3. Evaluation Design

A mixed methodology (quantitative and qualitative) will be used to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching resource, combining analysis of academic performance, student perception and assessment of experts in the sector. This approach makes it easier to compare the data obtained and ensure a more robust evaluation of the formative impact.

A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test design is proposed with a single group formed by all the students of a promotion, complemented with qualitative techniques. This design allows the level of competencies to be compared before and after the didactic intervention.

Phases of the evaluation:

• Initial measurement (pre-test): level of technical, digital and transversal skills.
• Intervention: use of the digitized teaching resource in project-based activities.
• Final measurement (post-test): comparison of performance after the intervention.
• Qualitative evaluation: interviews, questionnaires and focus groups.

Assessment instruments

For the evaluation of learning and competencies (quantitative), the use of the different assessment instruments common in the development of a course is considered:

• Performance rubrics to evaluate participation in practical activities, problem solving, use of operational data and management of the simulation system.
• Specific tests of knowledge and procedures applied before and after the intervention.
• Indicators of achievement of technical skills, such as:

  ○

  Interpretation of operational data;

  ○

  Calculation of management parameters (e.g., non-revenue water, technical hydraulic performance);

  ○

  Operation and maintenance of the simulated system;

  ○

  Quality of the execution of assembly techniques.

For the qualitative evaluation, the use of the following instruments is considered:

• Semi-structured interviews with students to collect experiences, difficulties and perceptions of the educational value of the resource.
• Focus groups with teachers to assess the integration of the resource into the curriculum.
• Satisfaction surveys on the design, usability and perceived impact of the resource.
• Judgement of experts from the water sector to validate:

  ○

  Professional relevance of the resource;

  ○

  Realism of simulated scenarios;

  ○

  Relevance of the competencies developed.

Based on the information collected through the indicated instruments, the data analysis procedure is carried out from a quantitative perspective (pre-test-post-test comparison through descriptive analysis and statistical tests of mean difference (e.g., Student’s t for related samples). From the qualitative perspective, the thematic analysis of interviews and focus groups and inductive and deductive coding are considered to identify patterns in perceptions, benefits and limitations of the resource.

The validity and reliability of the assessment is reinforced by the triangulation of techniques (tests, rubrics, interviews, experts) and the validation of content by specialists in the sector.

It should be emphasised that the results presented in this section correspond to the outcomes of the design phase of this research. The establishment of these guidelines represents an intermediate research result, providing a structured framework for the subsequent implementation and evaluation of the teaching plant as a didactic intervention.

3.4. Measuring the Success of the Didactic Plant

The interpretation of success is embedded within the logic of action research. Rather than assuming a fixed or final measure of effectiveness, the evaluation results will be used to inform reflective analysis and subsequent design improvements. In this sense, success is understood not only as the attainment of predefined indicators, but also as the capacity of the teaching plant to evolve in response to empirical evidence, pedagogical reflection and professional feedback.

The success of the didactic plant is understood as a multidimensional construct that goes beyond technical performance and encompasses pedagogical effectiveness, learning outcomes, professional relevance, and sustainability of the educational intervention. To capture this complexity, the evaluation framework adopted in this study is structured around four complementary dimensions: (i) achievement of learning outcomes, (ii) quality of skill acquisition and transfer, (iii) alignment with professional practice and employability requirements, and (iv) usability and sustainability of the teaching resource.

• Achievement of Learning Outcomes (Curricular Effectiveness): The primary indicator of success of the teaching plant is its effectiveness in supporting the achievement of the official learning outcomes (LOs) and assessment criteria (ACs) defined in the vocational training curricula. Success at this level will be measured through a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design, using a single cohort of students. Quantitative instruments will include written tests and problem-solving tasks aligned with selected LOs, allowing comparison of student performance before and after the didactic intervention. In addition, performance-based assessment will be conducted through rubrics explicitly mapped to the official assessment criteria, evaluating students’ ability to apply procedures, interpret operational data, and carry out commissioning, operation and maintenance tasks.
• Quality of Skill Acquisition and Knowledge Integration: Beyond the achievement of individual learning outcomes, a key success criterion is the extent to which students demonstrate integrated and transferable professional skills. This includes the ability to combine hydraulic knowledge, operational reasoning, digital tools and decision-making processes in realistic problem-solving situations. This dimension will be assessed through authentic performance tasks carried out using the teaching plant, such as leak detection analysis, pressure management, sectorisation planning, and interpretation of SCADA-based operational data. Student outputs (technical reports, operational logs, and project deliverables) will be analysed using analytic rubrics that consider not only correctness, but also reasoning, autonomy, collaboration and procedural coherence.
• Professional Relevance and Employability Alignment: A third dimension of success relates to the professional relevance of the competencies developed using the teaching plant. From this perspective, success is not defined by immediate employment outcomes, but by the perceived alignment between the skills acquired during training and the practices, technologies and procedures used in the urban water sector. This dimension will be evaluated through qualitative instruments, including structured questionnaires and interviews with students, teachers and sector professionals collaborating with the centre. Attention will be given to the perceived realism of the simulated scenarios, the relevance of the digital tools used, and the adequacy of the training provided to current operational and maintenance practices in water utilities.
• Usability, Acceptability and Sustainability of the Teaching Resource: The success of the teaching plant also depends on its usability, acceptance by teachers and students, and sustainability as a long-term educational resource. This includes factors such as ease of integration into the curriculum, flexibility to support different teaching approaches, robustness of the installation, and capacity for adaptation to future cohorts or curricular updates. Data for this dimension will be collected through satisfaction surveys, focus groups with teachers, and reflective reports documenting implementation challenges and improvement proposals. These data will support iterative refinement of the teaching plant in line with the action-research framework adopted.

By combining quantitative and qualitative indicators across curricular, pedagogical and professional dimensions, this evaluation framework allows a nuanced and transparent assessment of the educational value of the teaching plant. This approach ensures that claims regarding its effectiveness are grounded in evidence, contextualised within vocational training practice, and aligned with the principles of design-based and action-research methodologies.

Table 8. Indicators for assessing the success of the didactic plant.

Evaluation Dimension	Success Indicator	Data Sources/Instruments	Interpretation of Success
Achievement of learning outcomes (curricular effectiveness)	Improvement in the level of achievement of selected learning outcomes (LOs) and assessment criteria (ACs)	Pre-test/post-test assessments; performance rubrics aligned with official ACs	A statistically and pedagogically relevant increase in post-intervention scores indicates that the teaching plant effectively supports the attainment of curricular learning outcomes
Integrated skill acquisition	Ability to apply hydraulic, operational and digital knowledge in realistic problem-solving tasks	Authentic performance tasks (e.g., leak detection, sectorisation, pressure management); technical reports; SCADA operation logs	Successful integration is demonstrated when students solve complex tasks autonomously, justify decisions using operational data, and apply procedures coherently
Professional relevance and employability alignment	Perceived alignment between acquired competencies and professional practice in the urban water sector	Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with students, teachers and sector professionals	Success is indicated by a high perceived relevance of simulated scenarios, tools and procedures with respect to current industry practices
Usability and pedagogical integration	Ease of integration of the teaching plant into the curriculum and teaching practice	Teacher focus groups; implementation reports; satisfaction surveys	The plant is considered successful if teachers report feasibility, flexibility, and added pedagogical value across different modules
Student engagement and learning experience	Student motivation, engagement and perceived usefulness of the learning activities	Student surveys; reflective questionnaires; focus groups	Positive perceptions and sustained engagement suggest that the plant contributes to meaningful and motivating learning experiences
Sustainability and iterative improvement of the resource	Capacity of the teaching plant to be reused, adapted and improved over time	Reflective reports; documentation of modifications; action-research records	Success is reflected in the adaptability of the installation and its integration into iterative improvement cycles based on evidence and reflection

summarises the indicators used to assess the success of the didactic plant, structured across curricular, pedagogical, professional and sustainability-related dimensions.

4. Discussion

4.1. Contribution of the Teaching Plant to Vocational Training in Urban Water Management

The teaching plant presented in this study responds to the need to align vocational education and training with the technological and operational transformation currently taking place in the urban water sector [26,27,28,29]. Unlike traditional educational resources, which often focus on isolated technical concepts or laboratory-scale demonstrations, this installation has been conceived as an integrated training environment that enables students to engage with realistic scenarios associated with assembly, commissioning, operation and maintenance of water supply networks [38].

The design explicitly addresses competencies and learning outcomes defined in official vocational curricula, ensuring curricular relevance while incorporating digitalisation-related skills increasingly demanded by water utilities. From this perspective, the contribution of the plant lies not only in its technical configuration, but also in its capacity to support authentic learning situations closely resembling professional practice.

The fact that the design provides for remote access through cloud services makes it possible to simulate the actual remote management carried out by operating companies, turning the workshop classroom into a simulation scenario of real professional activity, in accordance with the guidelines set out in the Spanish Government’s Strategic Plan to promote vocational training [31].

4.2. Integration of Pedagogy, Technology and Content Within the TPACK Framework

The teaching plant has been designed from a pedagogical approach, assuming that teaching materials act as mediators between teaching and learning, and their relevance depends on their ability to facilitate the achievement of the intended learning objectives. Their functions include informing, guiding, training, motivating, simulating professional environments and facilitating connections between theoretical content and practical learning. For resources to be effective, they must be aligned with the expected learning outcomes, the subject content, the characteristics of the students and the pedagogical strategies in which they are integrated [35,72,73].

A key point in the design process adopted is the effectiveness of the backward design methodology and the TPACK model, which have ensured that the resource is not an end in itself, but a vehicle for achieving 40 learning outcomes and multiple official assessment criteria for 13 different modules. This ensures that practical activities—such as assembly and commissioning, operation, fault finding, and analysis of hydraulic efficiency parameters—are aligned with official intermediate and advanced level curricula.

The TPACK framework has played a central role in structuring the design of the teaching plant by ensuring the dynamic integration of content, pedagogical and technological knowledge. Content knowledge is represented by hydraulic principles, network operation procedures and maintenance protocols specific to the urban water cycle. Pedagogical knowledge is reflected in the adoption of active methodologies, particularly project-based learning and guided practical activities, which emphasise collaboration, problem solving and contextualised learning. Technological knowledge is embodied in the use of sensors, programmable logic controllers, SCADA systems and cloud-based data platforms. These three dimensions interact in concrete teaching activities; for example, the analysis of minimum night flow to estimate water losses requires hydraulic knowledge, the pedagogical structuring of a project-based task, and the use of digital monitoring technologies to generate and interpret real operational data. This interaction illustrates how technology is not an add-on, but a mediating element that enables deeper understanding of disciplinary content through appropriate pedagogical strategies.

4.3. Positioning the Teaching Plant as a Design-Based Educational Contribution

On the one hand, the methodology used can be employed to design other teaching resources that serve as vehicles for activities involving other learning outcomes not covered in our proposal. On the other hand, it can be used to reengineer the plant to broaden the range of learning outcomes involved. In this latter sense, the incorporation of a chlorination system in the regulating tank could be considered in line with skills related to drinking water treatment or sequential batch reactor (SBR) wastewater treatment in the return circuit fed by synthetic wastewater, which would broaden the scope to wastewater treatment.

In summary, the design process has produced a specific, contextualized teaching resource to support the development of key competencies in urban water management from a multidisciplinary perspective. Grounded in official assessment criteria, it enables effective evaluation while enhancing digital transformation skills and their practical application.

Given its current stage of development, the teaching plant should be understood as a design-based educational contribution rather than a fully validated pedagogical intervention. The article documents a systematic design process grounded in educational theory, curricular analysis and professional requirements, which distinguishes it from purely technical design reports. However, empirical evidence on learning improvements and skills acquisition is not yet available.

This positioning is consistent with design-based research approaches in education, where the design and justification of an educational artifact constitute a necessary step prior to its implementation, evaluation and iterative refinement in real contexts.

4.4. Expected Educational Impact and Research Hypotheses

Based on the alignment between curricular learning outcomes, professional competencies and realistic simulation scenarios, the teaching plant is expected to facilitate the integrated acquisition of technical, digital and transversal skills. In particular, it is hypothesised that the use of operational data, SCADA-based simulations and collaborative projects will improve students’ ability to interpret network behaviour, make informed decisions and apply procedures consistent with professional practice.

These expected impacts remain hypotheses derived from the design rationale and will be tested through the mixed-method evaluation strategy outlined in the methodological section. Until such evaluation is completed, claims regarding learning improvement or employability enhancement should be interpreted as provisional and prospective. The multidimensional evaluation framework (Table 8) allows interpretation of the success of the teaching plant beyond single performance metrics, incorporating learning outcomes, skills integration, professional relevance and sustainability of the educational intervention.

4.5. Limitations of the Teaching Installation

The proposed teaching plant presents several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, its scope is currently focused on drinking water supply and distribution networks, leaving other parts of the urban water cycle such as wastewater treatment or stormwater management outside its direct application. Second, the effective use of the installation requires prior basic knowledge of hydraulics, electricity and safety procedures, which may limit its applicability at earlier training stages. Thus, some scaffolding should be provided first in the classroom by the teachers of the different modules involved.

Additionally, the scale and technological complexity of the plant may pose challenges in terms of replication in training centres with limited resources. These limitations, however, also point to future development opportunities and potential extensions of the resource.

5. Conclusions

This article presents the design of a digitalised teaching plant conceived to address emerging training needs in the urban water cycle sector within vocational education and training. By combining a backward design approach with the TPACK framework, this study has ensured that the installation is not merely a technical prototype, but a pedagogically grounded resource aligned with official learning outcomes and assessment criteria. The proposed plant enables the simulation of realistic operational scenarios, integrating hydraulic concepts, digital technologies and active learning methodologies in a coherent educational environment.

At the current stage, this work reports the outcomes of the design phase of an ongoing action-research process. Although the expected benefits in terms of learning outcomes, skills acquisition and employability are theoretically grounded, their empirical validation remains a task for future research phases. The planned implementation and evaluation will provide the necessary evidence to assess the educational effectiveness of the resource. Beyond the specific case presented, the methodological approach described in this article may be transferable to the design of other context-specific teaching resources in vocational and technical education.

6. Additional Work

After completing the design phase and receiving the materials in early 2026, the following lines of work are proposed:

March–June 2026:

• Physical assembly and programming: Complete the assembly of the hydraulic and electrical components in the workshop of the educational (Figure 9) and proceed with the detailed programming of the PLC and SCADA system.
• Technical validation: Perform hydraulic leak tests, check sensor signals and validate automatic manoeuvres.
• Development of teaching materials: Draft guides for students and teachers detailing the practical activities linked to the learning outcomes.
• Training: Train teachers in the use of the plant and conduct pilot tests with small groups of students.

Academic year 2026–2027:

• Extensive use: Integrate the plant into the daily teaching of the four courses related to urban water.
• Implementation of the evaluation plan.

The success of the teaching installation will be assessed through a combination of quantitative and qualitative indicators, including pre-test and post-test comparisons of learning outcomes, performance-based assessment using rubrics aligned with official assessment criteria, and qualitative feedback from students, teachers and sector professionals. These indicators will allow the effectiveness of the plant to be measured in terms of learning improvement, skills development and professional relevance.