The Teaching Profession as a “Safe Haven”: A Study of Alternative Certification Programs in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Light of the Dual Labor Market Theory

Abstract

This study analyzes the profile of candidates enrolling in Alternative Certification Programs (ACP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina—specialized programs in pedagogical, psychological, didactic, and methodological education for graduates of non-teaching faculties to obtain a teaching qualification. Using the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT) as a framework, the research examines structural factors and systemic challenges shaping these career paths. It explores whether teaching in Bosnia and Herzegovina serves as a “safe haven” or an alternative career for highly educated individuals, and considers implications for the feminization of the profession and education quality. The study is based on demographic and educational data of ACP participants, including age, gender, previous academic background, and institution attended. Findings indicate that the typical participant is a woman under 30, often graduating from a public university in technical or social sciences. Results suggest that teaching is frequently chosen for employment stability and security rather than vocational calling, consistent with DLMT. These insights offer a better understanding of labor market dynamics and have implications for teacher recruitment, retention, and professional development policies in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1. Introduction

In societies facing economic and social instability—particularly in post-conflict transitional countries characterized by underdeveloped industry and limited labor markets—there is a growing interest in the teaching profession among highly educated individuals whose initial education was not pedagogically oriented. Such an environment naturally encourages career shifts toward more stable and secure occupations, among which teaching emerges as an appealing option.

Programs for training subject teachers in the fields of educational sciences and teaching methodologies are organized according to various models that differ in how academic and teaching competencies are acquired. In professional circles, three main models are identified: the parallel, modular, and successive models. In some countries, such as Denmark [1], teacher education is integrated within the overall study program, and students choose the teaching track upon enrollment (the so-called parallel model). In contrast, countries like Austria [2] and Germany [3] organize their programs so that academic and pedagogical components take place in different departments of the same faculty (the modular model). Finally, the successive model is typical of systems in which students first complete a degree in a specific subject area and only afterward, at another institution, acquire the necessary pedagogical qualifications. This model is particularly relevant for “career changers,” that is, individuals with a completed higher education degree (e.g., in biology, engineering, or economics) who later decide to pursue teaching.

The shortage of teachers represents a global challenge, and as a response, alternative certification programs (ACP) have been developed worldwide. These programs are designed to mitigate the lack of qualified personnel in education by providing a faster route to obtaining a teaching license [4]. Since ACPs are a direct expression of the successive model in practice, they are particularly relevant for career changers, as they allow them to acquire the necessary credentials in a shorter period of time.

Career transitions are not merely the result of individual choices but also reflect the structural needs of the educational system [5,6]. Research shows that the most common profile of women transitioning into teaching consists of individuals in their thirties [7] from fields such as natural sciences, engineering, information technology, or economics [4]. They often cite dissatisfaction with their previous profession, the need for social contribution, and a search for greater purpose in their work as the main drivers behind their decision [8,9]. Financial security and a better work–life balance have also been identified as significant factors [10,11]. Although new teachers bring fresh energy and perspectives into classrooms, systemic support and well-adapted training programs are essential to ensure that their integration is sustainable and of high quality [12].

1.1. The Phenomenon of Professional Transformation in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The phenomenon of professional transformation toward the teaching profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina takes place within a complex socioeconomic environment. The country is marked by the challenges of a transitional society, post-conflict legacy, and slow economic development [13]. Economic growth is characterized by sectors with limited employment capacity, resulting in high unemployment and few opportunities for career advancement in most traditional professions [14]. Such an economic context motivates many individuals to reconsider their career paths in search of greater stability and security. Within this framework, transitioning into the teaching profession has become one of the dominant trends, given that teaching is perceived as a secure occupation in this social environment.

In addition to economic factors, the social and cultural context—where education holds a special societal status—also contributes to choosing teaching as a second career path. In a country facing demographic challenges and migration trends [15], teaching is often viewed as a means of ensuring stability and contributing to social development. The situation is further complicated by the high fragmentation of the educational system in Bosnia and Herzegovina, resulting from a complex administrative structure in which the responsibility for teacher education lies with entities, cantons, and the Brčko District. Consequently, there is no unified national strategy for teacher education, leading to uneven standards and approaches across regions. From a critical perspective, this context suggests that choosing the teaching profession may not always stem from an intrinsic vocational calling but may instead reflect limited economic alternatives and the pursuit of the security that the system—fragmented though it may be—still provides.

Historically, teacher education in Bosnia and Herzegovina has evolved in accordance with political, social, and economic circumstances, heavily influenced by educational models from the former Yugoslavia and later by various European and global practices. Particularly after the war of the 1990s, the educational system underwent numerous reforms, including those related to initial teacher education and additional pedagogical training for graduates of non-teaching faculties.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, future subject teachers typically first complete an academic degree in their field of expertise, comprising around 240 ECTS credits (e.g., biology, mathematics, or languages). They then enroll in Alternative Certification Programs (ACP)—specialized pedagogical-psychological-didactic-methodological education programs (PPDME) for candidates from non-teaching faculties to obtain a teaching qualification, usually amounting to around 30 ECTS credits. However, the key challenge of this approach lies in the insufficient connection between theoretical and practical components of education. Researchers [16] emphasize that learning should be viewed as a long-term process shaped by the individual’s life history, specific learning situations, and broader social, economic, and political factors. Pedagogical practice and theoretical instruction are often treated as separate elements, which hinder the application of acquired knowledge in teaching and may affect teachers’ preparedness to respond to the complex challenges of contemporary education.

1.2. Aims and Theoretical Framework

The aim of this study, viewed through the lens of the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT), is to analyze the profile of candidates enrolling in Alternative Certification Programs (ACP) in Bosnia and Herzegovina—specialized pedagogical-psychological-didactic-methodological education programs (PPDME) for graduates of non-teaching faculties seeking to obtain teaching qualifications. The primary task is to determine whether the teaching profession functions as a “safe haven” or as an alternative outlet for highly educated individuals by examining their academic background, gender, and age structure. Through this analysis, the study seeks to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the professional pathways leading to teaching within Bosnia and Herzegovina’s specific socioeconomic context.

The Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT), developed by economists Peter B. Doeringer and Michael J. Piore in the 1970s [17,18], provides a key framework for understanding labor market stratification. It departs from neoclassical models that assume a homogeneous and fluid labor market, positing instead that it is divided into two or more distinct and often disconnected sectors. The main premise of the DLMT lies in the existence of barriers that restrict worker mobility between these sectors. The primary sector is characterized by stable employment, relatively high wages, substantial benefits, favorable working conditions, job security, and clear opportunities for advancement. In contrast, the secondary sector offers unstable employment, low wages, limited benefits, poorer working conditions, high turnover, and minimal opportunities for career growth.

In the context of Bosnia and Herzegovina, DLMT is particularly relevant for analyzing the phenomenon of professional retraining into the teaching profession. Although teaching, as part of the public sector, has traditionally offered job security (a feature of the primary sector), the specific economic and social context of Bosnia and Herzegovina—low wages, limited opportunities for upward mobility within the profession, and overall economic stagnation—positions it in a unique way within this theory, raising the question of whether it functions as the “lower” segment of the primary sector or as an alternative exit from the secondary sector [19].

Applying DLMT in this study involves analyzing demographic data to determine whether a significant number of retraining candidates come from academic fields (such as technical, economic, or natural-mathematical sciences) that, in more developed economies, typically constitute the core of the highly paid and stable primary sector. If such professionals increasingly opt for teaching, this may indicate either their inadequate integration or an inability to find appropriate employment in their original fields due to the underdevelopment or limited capacity of the primary sector in the economy [20].

Furthermore, the study explores whether the teaching profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina functions as a form of “reserve labor market” or “safe haven” for highly educated professionals. The stability and job security offered by teaching in the public sector make it an attractive alternative to the instability or lack of opportunities in other, often more profitable but underdeveloped, economic sectors [21]. Thus, the analysis examines whether the choice of this profession is motivated more by pragmatic concerns for stability than by an intrinsic vocational calling. DLMT also provides a framework for analyzing gender segmentation in the labor market, emphasizing that the secondary sector often predominantly employs women. In this study, we analyze whether the feminization of the teaching profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina reflects broader societal patterns in which women—due to social expectations or limited opportunities for career advancement in other sectors—are offered teaching as a more acceptable or accessible career option [22].

Ultimately, by applying the DLMT framework, this study aims not only to describe the profile of candidates undergoing retraining but also to deepen the understanding of structural factors and systemic challenges in the labor market of Bosnia and Herzegovina that shape these professional trajectories. Through such an analysis, we aim to contribute to understanding why individuals choose teaching and what implications this has for the quality of education and overall socioeconomic development. In the following sections, these theoretical assumptions will be applied in the empirical analysis of data.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Design

This study was conceptualized as a non-experimental, quantitative study based on secondary data analysis. Since there was no manipulation of variables, but rather an examination of existing relationships and distributions, the research is more precisely classified as an ex post facto study. Such a methodological approach is optimal for investigations aimed at identifying and analyzing the characteristics of an existing phenomenon without direct influence on variables. The use of secondary data, obtained from official and verified sources, contributes to the objectivity of the study while also allowing for the analysis of a large dataset without the time and logistical constraints typical of primary research.

2.2. Sample and Data

The research sample includes a total of N = 370 candidates enrolled in the Alternative Certification Program—Pedagogical-Psychological-Didactic-Methodological Education (PPDME)—at a public Faculty of Education (University of East Sarajevo) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, covering the period from 2011 to 2025. The data were primarily collected from the official records of the Faculty of Education, ensuring high reliability and validity.

Quantitative data reveal that the majority of participants come from technical sciences (N = 152; 41.08%), followed by social sciences (N = 122; 32.97%), while natural sciences (N = 49; 13.24%), medical sciences (N = 27; 7.30%), and humanities (N = 20; 5.41%) are less represented.

The dominance of technical and social sciences is crucial for analysis through the lens of the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT).

A significant gender disparity is also evident, with women (N = 258; 69.7%) markedly outnumbering men (N = 112; 30.3%). This imbalance is examined specifically in relation to the feminization of the teaching profession.

In terms of age, the sample is dominated by younger individuals under 30 years (N = 245; 66.2%), indicating a phenomenon of early-career transition.

Regarding institutional background, the majority of candidates hold degrees from public universities (N = 297; 80.3%), while a smaller proportion graduated from private institutions (N = 73; 19.7%).

Program completion rates show that 82.2% of participants (N = 304) successfully completed the program.

An analysis of their grade point averages indicates predominantly good performance: 47.0% (N = 143) achieved above-average results, 41.8% (N = 127) average, and 11.2% (N = 34) below average.

2.3. Statistical Data Analysis

All variables used in the analysis were precisely defined and coded. Candidates’ prior degrees were classified by scientific fields (natural, social, medical, technical and humanities), age groups were set as follows: young (up to 30 years), middle-aged (31–50 years), and older (over 51 years), and grade point averages (GPAs) were divided into three categories: “below average” (6–7.99), “average” (8–8.99), and “above average” (9–10). The criteria for “program completion” included passing all exams and receiving an official certificate. The type of institution was classified according to the founder: public or private. This coding allows for a precise analysis of candidates’ educational and professional profiles within the study. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the main characteristics of the sample, including frequencies, percentages, and means, providing a clear overview of the data structure and distribution. To test the associations between categorical variables such as gender and academic background, the Chi-square test (χ²) was applied.

This inferential statistic allows the determination of whether statistically significant differences exist in the distribution of participants across groups—that is, whether the variables are interdependent or independent. The analysis focuses on testing the null hypothesis of independence, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

Table 1. Distribution of ACP Candidates by Gender across Scientific Fields.

Gender	Natural Sciences	Social Sciences	Technical Sciences	Medical Sciences	Humanities	Chi-Square	Sig.
Male (N = 112; 30.3%)	6 (5.36%)	38 (33.93%)	58 (51.79%)	5 (4.46%)	5 (4.46%)	14.097	0.007
Female (N = 258; 69.7%)	43 (16.67%)	84 (32.56%)	94 (36.43%)	22 (8.53%)	15 (5.81%)

Pearson Chi-square test shows significant gender differences across fields (χ² = 14.097, p = 0.007).

presents the distribution of candidates in the Alternative Certification Programs (ACP) according to demographic and academic characteristics, with a focus on previously completed degrees categorized by scientific fields: natural, social, technical, medical, and humanities. The table includes gender, age group, type of institution, and candidates’ academic success, as well as the results of Pearson Chi-Square tests to assess the statistical significance of differences. This analysis provides insight into candidate profiles by scientific field, identifies dominant categories, and examines the relationship between prior education, the choice of the pedagogical subject group, and performance in the program.

Table 1 presents the distribution of candidates enrolled in the Alternative Certification Program (ACP) by gender across different scientific fields. The results indicate statistically significant gender differences among fields.

Table 2. Distribution of ACP Candidates by Age across Scientific Fields.

Age	Natural Sciences	Social Sciences	Technical Sciences	Medical Sciences	Humanities	Chi-Square	Sig.
Up to 30 years (N = 245; 66.2%)	41 (16.73%)	81 (33.06%)	95 (38.78%)	14 (5.71%)	14 (5.71%)	14.181	0.077
31–50 (N = 111; 30.0%)	8 (7.21%)	37 (33.33%)	50 (45.05%)	10 (9.01%)	6 (5.41%)
Over 51 (N = 14; 3.78%)	0 (0.00%)	4 (28.57%)	7 (50.00%)	3 (21.43%)	0 (0.00%)

The data reveal that most participants were under 30 years old, with no statistically significant differences by age. Differences by age group were not statistically significant (χ² = 14.181, p = 0.077).

displays the age distribution of ACP candidates across scientific fields.

As shown in

Table 3. Distribution of ACP Candidates by Type of Institution across Scientific Fields.

Institution Type	Natural Sciences	Social Sciences	Technical Sciences	Medical Sciences	Humanities	Chi-Square	Sig.
Public (N = 297; 80.3%)	49 (16.50%)	88 (29.63%)	130 (43.77%)	23 (7.74%)	7 (2.36%)	0.000	0.000
Private (N = 73; 19.7%)	0 (0.00%)	34 (46.58%)	22 (30.14%)	4 (5.48%)	13 (17.81%)

Pearson Chi-square indicates a statistically significant association between scientific field and type of institution (χ² = 0.000, p = 0.000).

, the majority of ACP candidates graduated from public institutions. The distribution significantly differs by the type of institution.

Table 4. Distribution of ACP Candidates by Program Completion Status across Scientific Fields.

Program Status	Natural Sciences	Social Sciences	Technical Sciences	Medical Sciences	Humanities	Chi-Square	Sig.
Completed (N = 304; 82.2%)	41 (13.49%)	98 (32.24%)	123 (40.46%)	26 (8.55%)	16 (5.26%)	4.260	0.372
Not completed (N = 66; 17.8%)	8 (12.12%)	24 (36.36%)	29 (43.94%)	1 (1.52%)	4 (6.06%)

No statistically significant differences were found between those who completed and those who did not complete the program (χ² = 4.260, p = 0.372).

shows the distribution of candidates according to their program completion status across scientific fields.

Table 5. Distribution of ACP Candidates by Grade Point Average (GPA) across Scientific Fields.

GPA	Natural Sciences	Social Sciences	Technical Sciences	Medical Sciences	Humanities	Chi-Square	Sig.
Below average (N = 34; 11.2%)	1 (2.94%)	15 (44.12%)	14 (41.18%)	0 (0.00%)	4 (11.76%)	19.549	0.012
Average (N = 127; 41.8%)	12 (9.45%)	46 (36.22%)	53 (41.73%)	10 (7.87%)	6 (4.72%)
Above average (N = 143; 47.0%)	28 (19.58%)	37 (25.87%)	56 (39.16%)	16 (11.19%)	6 (4.20%)

Differences in GPA distribution across fields were statistically significant (χ² = 19.549, p = 0.012).

presents the distribution of candidates who completed the program, classified by their grade point average (GPA) and scientific field.

The results show that women clearly dominate the enrollment in the pedagogical group of subjects, representing a significantly higher percentage of participants. There is a statistically significant difference in the distribution of previously completed faculties by gender, with men predominantly coming from technical sciences, while women are mostly represented in technical and social sciences. The population is generally younger, with the majority of respondents under the age of 30. Although differences can be observed in the educational background among age groups—particularly among older participants, where technical sciences dominate—no statistically significant difference was found in the distribution of previously completed faculties by age. Technical and social sciences remain consistently the primary sources of candidates for the pedagogical group of subjects, regardless of age.

Most candidates (over 80%) come from public universities. A statistically significant difference was found between candidates from public and private institutions, with technical sciences prevailing among candidates from public universities, while social sciences dominate among those from private ones. Importantly, most candidates successfully completed the pedagogical group of subjects, indicating the program’s overall effectiveness. Interestingly, although the field of previous education is relevant in profiling candidates, it does not play a decisive role in program completion success. However, academic performance within the ACP program is linked to prior educational background—candidates from natural sciences, though few achieved above-average results.

4. Discussion

The discussion focuses on interpreting the key findings of the study concerning the profiles of candidates enrolled in the pedagogical group of subjects in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The goal is to provide a theoretical framework for the findings using the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT). This approach enables the exploration of the hypothesis that the teaching profession, in the specific context of Bosnia and Herzegovina, functions either as a “safe haven” or as an alternative outlet for highly educated professionals. By analyzing gender and age structure, type of previously completed faculty, and program completion success, we seek to understand the interaction between individual choices and broader structural factors in the labor market.

4.1. Academic Background of Participants and Implications for the Dual Labor Market

The analysis of the academic background of participants provides deep insight into educational and professional dynamics within the DLMT framework. The data indicate that technical and social sciences are the dominant sources of candidates, regardless of gender, age, or the type of previous higher education institution.

The presence of candidates with completed degrees in technical and social sciences across all categories points to two key phenomena. First, undergraduate programs in these fields in Bosnia and Herzegovina often do not provide sufficient pedagogical training, creating a systemic need for subsequent qualification to access the teaching profession. Second, and more importantly, in the DLMT context, an increasing number of graduates from these traditionally “primary” sectors—who, in more developed economies, would occupy well-paid and stable positions—are turning toward teaching.

This dynamic supports the idea that teaching often emerges as a secondary, pragmatic career choice rather than a primary professional orientation [21]. It may be interpreted as a response to instability and limited employment opportunities within their original professions in the domestic economy [23,24]. Thus, the public sector becomes an attractive “refuge” for highly educated professionals seeking career stability.

The distribution of academic backgrounds varies by institution type. Candidates from public universities mainly come from technical and social sciences, reflecting the structure and capacity of the public education system. Among those from private universities, social sciences dominate, with a notable share of humanities graduates, while natural sciences are nearly absent. The highly significant difference (Sig. = 0.000) indicates divergent pathways and complementary roles of these sectors in shaping the teaching workforce, corresponding to different approaches to the labor market and educational profiles.

Further insights emerge from the analysis of academic success within the pedagogical group of subjects. Although technical and social sciences dominate in all categories, candidates with a background in natural sciences—though few in number—demonstrate above-average success (19.58% in the “above average” group). This suggests strong adaptability, analytical skills, and commitment. While their academic socialization is not typically directed toward didactic interaction, with adequate support they can become highly effective educators. The statistically significant difference (Sig. = 0.012) confirms the link between prior academic background and success in the pedagogical program.

Finally, data on program completion status show that the majority of participants (82.2%) successfully completed the program, regardless of their academic background. This indicates that the program effectively prepares candidates for teaching. However, among those who did not complete the program, the majority come from technical and social sciences. This suggests that previous education does not have a strong influence on success rates; rather, factors such as personal motivation and external conditions may be decisive for successful completion.

4.2. Gender of Candidates and Feminization of the Profession in the Context of DLMT

The analysis of gender composition is essential to understanding gender patterns shaping the choice of the teaching profession, which can be directly interpreted through the lens of DLMT. The findings clearly show significant feminization of the teaching profession, as women are overwhelmingly represented (69.7%) among those enrolled in the pedagogical group of subjects, compared to men (30.3%). This aligns with global trends where teaching—especially in primary education and the humanities—has become a predominantly “female” profession (Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS).

Gender segregation in the labor market, as explained by DLMT, often reflects societal expectations, gender stereotypes, and systemic barriers directing women toward specific sectors. Consequently, this structure may discourage men from entering the teaching profession and reduce gender diversity in classrooms, despite the pedagogical importance of male presence as role models, especially in primary education [25].

Gender differences in the choice of teaching careers are often linked to economic factors, a central element of DLMT: teaching is typically a low-paid and less prestigious occupation, which in patriarchal societies makes it more “acceptable” for women [20,22]. The analysis of previous academic background by gender further supports this perspective, providing insight into labor market segmentation.

Men entering the pedagogical group of subjects most often come from technical sciences (51.79%)—a field that in more developed economies forms the core of the high-paying primary sector. Their decision to pursue teaching may indicate difficulties in finding adequate employment in their own field in Bosnia and Herzegovina, suggesting the limited capacity or underdevelopment of the primary labor market.

In contrast, among women, technical (36.43%) and social sciences (32.56%) are dominant, but their distribution is broader, including a notable share from natural sciences (16.67%). The substantial share of women from technical fields entering the ACP program is particularly telling. Although graduates from technical faculties are generally expected to find employment easily within their field, the high rate of women entering teaching indicates deeper structural issues in the labor market.

This suggests that women may face greater difficulties or discrimination in traditionally “male” sectors, directing them toward more stable, though often lower-paid, public sector jobs. The teaching profession, with its inherent job security, can thus represent a “safe haven” within the DLMT framework for highly educated women seeking stability in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This dynamic highlights the complexity of professional requalification and reflects broader structural challenges affecting women’s career trajectories.

Interpreted through DLMT, the findings imply that the pragmatic pursuit of stability is a key factor for highly educated professionals in Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly those from technical fields. The shortage of teachers—especially in mathematics, physics, and chemistry [26]—may create employment opportunities for these professionals. However, low salaries, weak social status, and limited advancement opportunities make the profession less attractive, particularly to men [20,22], which our gender-disproportion data confirm as a reflection of gender segmentation in the dual labor market.

4.3. Age Structure of Participants and Career Pathways in the Context of DLMT

The analysis of the age structure of participants in the pedagogical group of subjects provides valuable insight into how economic realities and labor market structures in Bosnia and Herzegovina shape professional pathways across different life stages. These findings correspond closely with key postulates of DLMT.

The dominance of younger respondents—66.2% under 30 years of age—suggests that pedagogical qualification is perceived as an initial step toward employment following university studies. According to DLMT, young graduates in more developed economies typically enter well-paid and stable segments of the primary sector. However, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, limited opportunities in original professions often direct these individuals toward acquiring teaching qualifications. The public sector, to which teaching belongs, although characterized by lower wages, offers considerable employment security. This positions teaching as an appealing refuge for young professionals, protecting them from the uncertainty of the secondary labor market, which is marked by instability and limited opportunities.

The smaller representation of participants aged 31–50 (30.0%) and those over 51 (3.8%) suggests that the program also attracts individuals undergoing professional transitions. For older cohorts, economic pressures are the dominant motivational factor. The lack of suitable employment in their primary field, workforce reductions in other sectors, or the pursuit of greater stability and security in the public sector become decisive motives.

These individuals, often with experience in the private sector subject to fluctuations, use the pedagogical program as a mechanism to shift from more unstable parts of the labor market into more secure segments. Additionally, systemic factors—such as the requirement for obtaining pedagogical qualifications for those already employed in education—further shape these trends, encompassing even those already working within the school system.

Although there are variations in prior educational background among age groups (e.g., the dominance of technical sciences among those over 51), statistical analysis (Sig. = 0.077) shows no significant difference in the distribution of previously completed faculties by age. Regardless of age, technical and social sciences remain the main sources of candidates for the pedagogical program. This consistency supports the DLMT perspective, showing that challenges in finding adequate employment or the pursuit of stability are not age-specific but represent a generalized issue for highly educated individuals from these fields.

This analysis confirms that the teaching profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina functions as a “safe haven” for highly educated professionals, particularly younger ones. The choice of this profession is not always driven by intrinsic vocation but often represents a pragmatic response to labor market limitations and lack of opportunities. This dynamic underscores the complexity of professional requalification and reflects broader structural challenges within Bosnia and Herzegovina’s labor market.

4.4. Implications of the Study: Educational Policy, Teaching Quality, and Socioeconomic Perspective

The study of the profiles of candidates for the teaching profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly through the lens of the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT), has significant global implications. Bosnia and Herzegovina, as a transitional society with a limited labor market, serves as a relevant case for understanding broader global trends. The phenomenon of highly educated individuals transitioning from technical, natural, or social sciences into teaching is not unique to Bosnia and Herzegovina. In many developing and transitional countries, where the primary sectors of the economy (e.g., high-tech industry) are not sufficiently developed to absorb all university graduates, teaching in the public sector often becomes a “safe haven.”

Job stability and relative security, combined with decent—though not necessarily high—salaries, make education an attractive career option compared to the volatile private sector. This finding aligns directly with DLMT, where the public sector, although not “primary” in terms of wages, offers the stability lacking in the “secondary” or underdeveloped segments of the “primary” labor market.

The feminization of the teaching profession observed in Bosnia and Herzegovina reflects a global trend. In many countries, women constitute the majority of the teaching workforce—a result of the interplay between social expectations, gender stereotypes, and limited career development opportunities in traditionally “male” sectors. The results of this study, showing a significant number of women with technical degrees entering the teaching profession, illustrate this dynamic and point to the structural barriers women may face when seeking employment in their primary fields.

Teaching quality represents an additional global challenge. A large proportion of teachers choosing the profession for pragmatic reasons rather than genuine vocation raises concerns about motivation and long-term commitment. On the other hand, the transition of professionals from other disciplines can bring fresh perspectives, advanced technical expertise, and innovative approaches to teaching, particularly in STEM subjects, where many countries face shortages of qualified teachers. Recent studies emphasize that aligning university curricula with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) represents an essential step towards fostering responsible and future-oriented education [27,28].

These findings highlight the need for policymakers—especially in countries facing similar socioeconomic challenges—to understand the complexity of teacher motivation and career trajectories. Policy efforts should focus not only on attracting candidates but also on creating an environment that ensures continuous professional development [29,30], mentoring support, and, where possible, improved working conditions. In this way, the teaching profession can become a primary career choice rather than one driven by necessity.

This study contributes to a broader understanding of how global economic pressures shape local education systems and individual career choices. Its implications extend from the formulation of socioeconomic policies to the strategic enhancement of teaching quality and rationalization of educational programs, thereby supporting a sustainable and qualified teaching workforce.

Given the importance of supporting teachers’ professional development, we can propose several concrete policies that combine structural support with the development of individual agency, in line with the findings of Po-kan Lo and Ka-ho To [31]:

(a)

Integrating ICT pedagogy and tools into ACP modules and ongoing CPD, with dedicated technical support;

(b)

Creating protected time for CPD by reducing administrative workload;

(c)

Fostering collaborative teacher communities and the development of higher-order thinking pedagogy;

(d)

Increasing teacher autonomy in the choice of methods within clear curricular goals.

To strengthen the practical implications of this research in the context of sustainable development, it is recommended to concretize policies aimed at enhancing candidates’ classroom readiness and teacher professional development. This includes aligning ACP program content and practicum to improve teaching preparedness; developing mentoring and induction support systems; improving career pathways and advancement opportunities; targeted recruitment and incentives for shortage subjects, particularly in STEM; addressing gender-specific barriers in technical fields; and establishing longitudinal data systems that link ACP enrollment with employment, retention, and performance outcomes in schools.

4.5. Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The main limitations of this study arise from the nature of the data. Only secondary, quantitative data from a single higher education institution in Bosnia and Herzegovina were used, which limits the ability to gain deeper insight into the motivations, perceptions, and experiences of candidates. Consequently, we could not determine directly why candidates chose the pedagogical group of subjects—whether out of passion for teaching, job security, or a lack of alternatives. The reliance on descriptive, institution-specific data also constrains the robustness of conclusions regarding whether the teaching profession functions as a “safe haven” within the framework of Dual Labor Market Theory. The local context and limited scope of the study restrict the generalizability of the findings to the national level or to other educational systems.

These limitations open several directions for future research. Qualitative studies involving interviews or focus groups with candidates would provide insight into their reasons for enrollment, perceptions of the labor market in their primary fields, and challenges they face. It would be particularly valuable to examine the experiences of women from technical sciences and men from social sciences. Expanding the sample and conducting comparative analyses across multiple universities and regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as in other transition countries with similar economic conditions, would strengthen the empirical basis and improve generalizability.

Longitudinal studies tracking the career trajectories of graduates from pedagogical programs are essential to monitor employment, retention in the profession, salaries, and advancement opportunities. Additionally, analyzing the influence of prior academic background on the quality of education delivered by these graduates would require more complex methodologies, including field evaluation of pedagogical competencies. Finally, investigating public perceptions of the teaching profession—its status, income, and attractiveness—through surveys of the general public, students, and employers would provide valuable context regarding its position in the labor market.

Overall, while this study provides descriptive insights into ACP candidates, the interpretation of findings must be considered tentative. Many causal and structural claims cannot be fully substantiated with the current data, and future research incorporating broader, multi-method datasets and advanced analytical approaches is necessary to rigorously test the hypotheses and theoretical assumptions outlined in this work.

5. Conclusions

The analysis of participants in ACP programs in Bosnia and Herzegovina confirms the relevance of the Dual Labor Market Theory (DLMT) in explaining professional pathways toward teaching. The teaching profession, as part of the public sector with inherent stability, often functions as a “safe haven” or “alternative outlet,” underscoring its unique position between the primary and secondary sectors of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s economy.

The predominance of women—especially those with prior education in technical and social sciences—confirms the feminization of the profession and reflects social patterns in which women face more limited career opportunities in other sectors. The mass enrollment of candidates from fields that, in developed economies, would belong to the core of the primary sector clearly indicates the underdevelopment or limited capacity of the primary labor market in Bosnia and Herzegovina [24].

According to all indicators, these individuals tend to enter the teaching profession not out of intrinsic vocation but as a pragmatic choice in search of stable employment. Although younger participants dominate among enrollees and most successfully complete the program, the statistically significant link between prior academic background and achievement in the pedagogical group points to a complex interaction between academic socialization and pedagogical competence.

Professional retraining into teaching is not solely an individual decision but is shaped by broader economic and sociocultural contexts. Improving teacher education requires a more integrated approach that enables continuous adaptation of programs to labor market needs, sustains candidate motivation, and preserves high standards of teaching quality.