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Article

Modeling an Energy Router with an Energy Storage Device for Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Sustainable Development of Power Supply Systems

by
Yuri Bulatov
1,
Andrey Kryukov
2,*,
Vadim Kizhin
1,
Konstantin Suslov
3,4,*,
Iliya Iliev
5,*,
Hristo Beloev
6 and
Ivan Beloev
7
1
Department of Energy, Bratsk State University, 665709 Bratsk, Russia
2
Department of Electric Power Engineering of Transport, Irkutsk State Transport University, 664074 Irkutsk, Russia
3
Moscow Power Engineering Institute, Department of Hydropower and Renewable Energy, National Research University, 111250 Moscow, Russia
4
Low-Temperature Testing Laboratory, Cherepovets State University, 162600 Cherepovets, Russia
5
Department of Heat, Hydraulics and Environmental Engineering, “Angel Kanchev” University of Ruse, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria
6
Department of Agricultural Machinery, “Angel Kanchev” University of Ruse, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria
7
Department of Transport, “Angel Kanchev” University of Ruse, 7017 Ruse, Bulgaria
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(24), 11041; https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411041
Submission received: 22 September 2025 / Revised: 1 November 2025 / Accepted: 7 November 2025 / Published: 10 December 2025
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Abstract

The efficiency of using electric vehicles largely depends on the availability of charging stations in power supply systems (PSS). To improve the power quality and the ability to control power flows, charging stations can be connected via energy routers built on the basis of solid-state high-frequency transformers. The paper proposes incorporating an energy storage device in the DC circuit of the energy router to improve the reliability of the power supply. The paper presents the results of modeling the operation of a power system supplying DC charging stations based on an energy router with an energy storage device. The study aimed to test the efficiency of the developed regulation system of the energy router with an energy storage device and its impact on the voltage in the power supply system and harmonic distortion levels. An algorithm for stabilizing voltage in the DC and AC networks of the energy router is proposed relying on the transformation of three-phase coordinates a–b–c into the d–q–0 system. The diagrams and descriptions of the models of the power supply system with DC charging stations, as well as an energy router with an energy storage device and a converter for control in normal and emergency modes are presented. The modeling results reveal that the proposed regulator of the energy router with an energy storage device reduces voltage drops when connecting a high-power load and ensures acceptable power quality indicators to meet the criterion of harmonic components. By implementing the control system of the energy storage device within the energy router and electric vehicle charging stations, we can effectively maintain voltage at consumers during emergencies. Thus, the use of energy routers with an automatic voltage regulation system will ensure the sustainable development of modern power supply systems with the ability to connect renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and electric vehicle charging stations.

1. Introduction

Advances in power electronics are increasing the number of various converter devices used in electric power systems, for example, for connecting renewable energy sources (RES), organizing DC grids, powering electric vehicle charging stations, and more. The use of converter devices based on power electronics leads to changes in the operating modes of the electric power system. Therefore, research aimed at identifying the impact of power electronics on existing power supply systems is relevant, especially with the widespread adoption of RES, energy storage devices, and electric vehicle charging stations. This article examines the impact of charging stations on the operating modes of the power supply system.
Eighteen countries plan to completely stop the production and sale of cars with internal combustion engines by 2040 [1]. This will contribute to an increase in the number of electric vehicles. The expansion of the electric vehicle market requires the installation of special charging stations for their prompt recharging [2]. Charging stations are an important link connecting electric vehicles to the power supply system [3]. The papers [4,5] describe the prospects for the development of electric vehicles and charging infrastructure.
Articles [6,7] present an analysis of the development of charging infrastructure worldwide. According to the International Energy Agency, electric vehicles could account for up to 30% of the global vehicle fleet by 2030. The following trends in the development of electric vehicles and charging infrastructure can be noted: an increase in the number of charging stations; the development of ultra-fast charging (devices with a capacity of 800 kW and new battery technologies are emerging); and the use of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, which allows electric vehicles not only to charge but also to return their stored energy back to the electrical grid. The main types of charging stations and the classification of electric vehicle connectors based on current standards are given in [6,8,9].
The charging stations used can be divided into AC and DC types. In [10,11,12], consideration is given to the models of direct current charging stations that produce voltage up to 600 V and current up to 400 A. Such charging stations are called fast chargers [13]. They require converter devices that provide voltage level regulation and reduction in electromagnetic interference [14].

2. Problem Statement and Proposed Solution

Introducing a large number of charging stations will increase the load on electrical networks and may lead to deterioration of power quality indicators (PQI).
The nonlinear nature of charging devices results in the appearance of high-order harmonics in the current they consume [15,16]. These problems inevitably impact the performance and service life of electrical equipment in the distribution network. Harmonic current components also cause additional heating losses. The impact of different charging rates of electric vehicle batteries on the power quality of the distribution network is studied in [17]. The impact of harmonic currents on the electrical system during fast charging of several electric vehicles is studied in [18,19].
An assessment of the impact electric vehicles have on the power supply system, as well as recommendations for power grid companies and charging station manufacturers, are provided in [20]. Charging stations can be used in conjunction with distributed generation units operating on the basis of renewable sources [21] and energy storage units [22,23]. Such power supply systems will call for modification of the relay protection and automation algorithms [24,25,26,27].
Energy routers based on solid-state transformers can be used as interfaces between power supply systems and charging stations [28,29,30,31]. They will improve the operation of charging stations and ensure efficient power flow management, integration of distributed generation units, and increase in the power quality [32]. Energy routers can aid in distributing energy flows between several charging stations and an electric energy storage device [33]. Methods for calculating the energy balance of a battery, selecting the location of charging stations, and assessing their impact on the electrical network are detailed in [34,35,36,37].
Currently, numerous energy router configurations have been developed [38,39,40], differing in connection schemes and the number of power converters. This paper examines an energy router circuit based on a solid-state high-frequency transformer with a double active bridge. This configuration enables direct connection of energy storage devices and renewable energy sources, as well as electric vehicle charging stations, to the high-voltage and low-voltage DC circuits of the energy router. All this will ensure the sustainable development of modern power supply systems.
Using a power router to solve this problem requires the development of a unique system for automatic voltage regulation at power consumers by controlling power converters and regulating power flows.
Below is a description of the models of the power supply system under study, based on a power router with an automatic voltage regulation system, connected to an energy storage device and an electric vehicle charging station. The modeling results and key conclusions are presented.
Conventional inverter voltage control predominantly utilizes the Proportional–Integral–Derivative (PID) algorithm. While these controllers are highly reliable in steady-state operation, their fixed parameters limit their performance under dynamic conditions [41]. These limitations necessitate both the modification of conventional PID algorithms and the adoption of intelligent controllers based on artificial intelligence methods [42,43]. Such advanced systems facilitate the adaptation of the inverter regulator to varying operational conditions and modes [44].
The study aims to test the efficiency of the proposed control system of the energy router with an energy storage device and its impact on the PQI when operating together with the electric vehicle charging station.
The novelty of the research lies in the developed simulation models of an energy router with an automatic voltage regulation system and a charging station with an electric vehicle battery, as well as in the results of the experiments and in the application of the proposed energy router regulator with an energy storage device together with a charging station for voltage regulation and improving the power quality.

3. Materials and Methods

The study is conducted using a developed simulation model of a power supply system built around a power router with energy storage, supplying a DC charging station and an active-inductive load. The simulation was performed in MATLAB (ver. R2024b) using the Simulink and SimPowerSystems packages. Normal steady-state, stressed, and emergency modes of the power supply system under study were modeled.
Consider models of a power supply system with an energy router and a voltage control system.
The dusty involved determining the operating conditions of the power supply system (PSS) that powers essential electricity consumers and DC charging stations (CSs) from an energy router with an energy storage device. The model diagram indicating voltage, frequency, and power is presented in Figure 1.
The diagram of the simulation model of the power supply system, corresponding to the structure of Figure 1, is presented in Figure 2.
The description of the energy router model is given in [30,31,32]. This study proposes a modified inverter voltage regulator (Figure 3) with an LC filter installed at its output and pulse-width modulation signals utilized for control. An algorithm based on the direct and inverse transformation of three-phase coordinates a–b–c into the d–q–0 system is proposed to stabilize DC and AC voltage [45,46]. A key distinction between the proposed controller and conventional PI/PID controllers in the d–q–0 reference frame lies in its concurrent control of both the DC and AC side voltages of the inverter. This architecture employs positive voltage feedback for the DC side and enhances the d–q–0 PID regulators with an integrated voltage feed-forward system.
The diagram of the regulator model is shown in Figure 4. It includes a common block, a DC voltage stabilization section, and coordinate converters. The signals Vdc, instantaneous values of current Igrid and voltage Vabc (Figure 4) are fed to the input of the device. The DC regulator implements a proportional-integral law with positive feedback on the current voltage in the DC network. At the output, which is designated as a converter from d–q–0 to a–b–c (Figure 4), control signals for the pulse generator are generated.
In the general block (Figure 5), the voltage signals along the d and q axes are regulated using the proportional–integral–differential (PID) control law. They are generated using an algorithm that factors in the inductance of the output filter:
U d _ c o n v = U d _ r e f - V d × W p i d − I q ⋅ ω ⋅ L , U q _ c o n v = U q _ r e f - V q × W p i d + I d ⋅ ω ⋅ L ,
where U d _ r e f and U q _ r e f are the control signals from the DC voltage regulator along the d and q axes, U d _ r e f = ( V d c _ r e f + V d c ) ⋅ W p i ; Vd and Vq are network voltage signals along the same axes; I d and I q are electrical network currents; ω = 2π f; f is frequency; L is the output filter inductance; Wpid is the transfer function of the PID controller:
W p i d = K p + K i T i ⋅ p + K d ⋅ T d ⋅ p T d ⋅ p + 1
where Kp, Ki, Kd are the tuning coefficients, Ti, Td are, respectively, the integral and derivative time constants, p is the Laplace operator; Wpi is the transfer function of the PI controller, where Kd = 0.
The model of the general inverter regulator presented in Figure 5 forces the voltage by feeding an additional signal to the PID controller along the q coordinate. The following PID controller settings were adopted for the simulation: Kp = 6, Ki = 0.5, Kd = 0.05, Ti = 0.1, Td = 1.
The diagram of the model of a DC charging station with a connected electric vehicle battery is shown in Figure 6. It takes into account the cable resistances and the DC/DC converter with a controller for controlling the electric vehicle battery mode. Consideration was given to a 300 kW charging station for three electric vehicles with a 256 A/h battery capacity.
During the simulation in the initial mode, the energy storage device (Energy storage device block in Figure 2) was charged to 100%, and the electric vehicle batteries were charged to 50%.

4. Simulation Results

The power system steady state was simulated in advance. The results of the simulation were used to determine the composition of voltage harmonics for 0.4 kV consumers (Figure 7). The power system was simulated for the scenarios with a conventional transformer (without a harmonic filter), a transformer with a passive harmonic filter, and a system with an energy router.
The simulation results shown in Figure 6 indicate that the connection of the charging station via a standard power transformer and a bidirectional converter causes noticeable harmonic distortions (the total harmonic distortion kU = 2.86%; designated as THD in Figure 7). With a passive filter installed on the low voltage side at the point where the charging station is connected, the total harmonic distortion kU declines achieving 0.13% (Figure 7b). The use of an energy router can reduce kU up to 0.1% (Figure 7c). The harmonic composition includes high amplitudes of harmonics 25 and 29 from the bidirectional converter of the charging station with a high-frequency pulse-width modulation. The harmonic composition and amplitudes in the scenarios presented in Figure 7b,c are somewhat different due to a larger number of different converters used within the system with the energy router.
Thus, the use of an energy router not only significantly improves the power quality of, but also enables a direct connection of energy storage devices and electric vehicle charging stations.
The simulation results for the short-term short-circuit conditions on the 10 kV side in the form of voltages and the charge value of the electric vehicle batteries are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9. The energy storage device of the energy router is disconnected. These Figures lead to the conclusion that the use of the energy router makes it possible to maintain the voltage at consumers near the nominal value (Figure 8, curve 2). This is because for the system with the energy router, a unidirectional converter was employed on the 10 kV side during simulation, which is why there was no feed-in to the short-circuit location from the energy router, unlike the case with a conventional transformer.
The power system operating conditions determined during short-term connection of a high-power load at 0.4 kV consumers, causing a voltage drop, are shown in Figure 9, Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12. The considered scenarios of power system and charging station operation are indicated with numbers 1–3 in Figure 10, Figure 11 and Figure 12:
1—The voltage regulator of the energy router is switched on without electric vehicle batteries;
2—The voltage regulator of the energy router is switched on with electric vehicles connected;
3—The voltage regulator of the energy router is switched on with an electric energy storage device and voltage forcing.
With the energy router regulator and electric vehicle batteries utilized together, it is possible to maintain the voltage close to the nominal value (Figure 10, curve 2). The use of voltage forcing and an energy storage device in the regulator ensures a rapid increase in voltage at consumers (Figure 10, curve 3). In this case, the battery current is controlled using the DC/DC converter by turning it on 0.1 s after the voltage dropped.
The signals from the DC voltage regulator in the form of specified values of the parameters Ud_ref are shown in Figure 11. As seen in the Figure, connecting the batteries increases the signal Ud_ref, which contributes to a growth in the inverter voltage amplitude in accordance with (1). With voltage forcing (curve 3 in Figure 11), the voltage value rises only to the nominal value (Figure 10, curve 3).
The signals generated in the d and q coordinates (Figure 12) exhibit an increase in their amplitude with a decrease in the voltage in the electrical network. As evidenced by Figure 12b, the forcing signal increases (curve 3 in Figure 12b). In the other two scenarios (curves 1 and 2), these parameters remain virtually unchanged. The PID controller must be reconfigured to enhance sensitivity.
When connecting electric vehicle batteries, the regulator signal along the d axis declines (Figure 12, curve 2). Forcing results in a markedly greater decrease in this parameter (curve 3). The use of the proposed regulator with the described signal generation algorithm (1) ensures acceptable PQI according to the criterion for the level of harmonic voltage components at 0.4 kV buses. The total harmonic distortion (THD) was 0.06% (Figure 13).
Thus, the use of the proposed energy router regulator and an energy storage device together with electric vehicle charging stations ensures a reduction in voltage drops in the power system when connecting a high-power load. It also provides acceptable power quality in terms of harmonic voltage distortion on 0.4 kV buses.

5. Conclusions

The results of the study lead to the following conclusions:
  • Simulation modeling was performed for a power system incorporating an electric vehicle charging station. Connecting the charging station through a standard transformer and a bidirectional AC/DC converter produces noticeable harmonic voltage distortions (the THD kU is 2.9%). Installing a passive filter can reduce kU to 0.13%. The use of an energy router in a power supply system significantly reduces the amplitudes of the generated harmonics at the 0.4 kV consumer buses: the THD kU in a steady state declines by 29 times from 2.9 to 0.1%. Complete suppression of high-harmonics can be achieved using active filters with an appropriate control algorithm.
  • A modified model of the voltage regulator of the energy router inverter is developed. An algorithm for stabilizing the DC and AC voltage is proposed, relying on the transformation of three-phase coordinates a–b–c into the system d–q–0. The diagrams and description of the models for the power system based on the energy router with a DC charging station and a DC/DC converter to control the mode of electric vehicle batteries are presented.
  • Modeling of the power supply system under short-circuit conditions shows that the system with the energy router, in contrast to the power supply system with a standard transformer, is able to maintain the voltage close to the nominal value. This is because the modeling employed a unidirectional AC/DC converter on the 10 kV side of the energy router and there was no power supply to the short circuit location from the energy router.
  • The proposed regulator allows maintaining the voltage at the consumer near the nominal value when connecting an additional load. At the same time, voltage forcing and the energy storage device ensure a rapid increase in voltage to the nominal value.
  • The proposed energy router regulator can reduce voltage dips and improve the power quality in terms of harmonic content. With the proposed regulator, the total harmonic distortion decreased by 1.7 times from 0.1% to 0.06%. This leads to the conclusion that enhancing the control algorithm of the energy router inverter improves the power quality. Further research needs to be conducted to design, test, and refine voltage regulation systems for energy router converters that incorporate energy storage devices and charging stations equipped with active filters to enhance the electric power quality. In this case, for multi-objective control, artificial intelligence systems can be applied. Based on these, it is possible to develop and implement an active harmonic filtering algorithm into the overall control system of the energy router.
Thus, the stated objective of the study has been achieved. The effectiveness of the proposed automatic regulation system for a power router with an energy storage device and an electric vehicle charging station has been demonstrated. This system reduces voltage dips in severe and emergency conditions, as well as improves power quality indicators in terms of the harmonic composition of voltage at power consumers.
As a result, the use of energy routers with automatic voltage regulation systems will ensure the sustainable development of modern power supply systems with the ability to connect and integrate renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and electric vehicle charging stations. Modern control and regulation technologies ensure the stable operation of energy routers within solar power plants and the required power quality, while connected energy storage devices and renewable energy sources will reduce transmission losses and improve the reliability of power supply to consumers.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S.; methodology, Y.B., A.K., V.K., I.B.; software, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S.,; validation, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S.; formal analysis, Y.B., A.K.; investigation, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S., I.I., H.B., I.B.; resources, K.S., I.I., H.B., I.B.; data curation, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S., I.I., H.B., I.B.; writing—review and editing, Y.B., A.K., V.K., K.S., I.I., H.B., I.B.; visualization, Y.B., A.K.; supervision, Y.B., A.K., K.S.; project administration, K.S., I.I., H.B., I.B.; funding acquisition, I.I., H.B., I.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study is financed by the European Union-NextGenerationEU, through the National Recovery and Resilience Plan of the Republic of Bulgaria, project № BG-RRP-2.013-0001-C01.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Explanatory diagram of the PSS model.
Figure 1. Explanatory diagram of the PSS model.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the simulation model of the power supply system.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the simulation model of the power supply system.
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Figure 3. Diagram of a model of the inverter with an LC filter.
Figure 3. Diagram of a model of the inverter with an LC filter.
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Figure 4. Diagram of the voltage regulator model.
Figure 4. Diagram of the voltage regulator model.
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Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a model of the general inverter voltage regulator.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a model of the general inverter voltage regulator.
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Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a model of the charging station with an electric vehicle battery.
Figure 6. Schematic diagram of a model of the charging station with an electric vehicle battery.
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Figure 7. The composition of voltage harmonics at 0.4 kV consumers.
Figure 7. The composition of voltage harmonics at 0.4 kV consumers.
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Figure 8. Voltage at 0.4 kV consumers with a short-term short circuit on the 10 kV side: 1—conventional transformer; 2—energy router; 3—energy router without connected electric vehicle batteries.
Figure 8. Voltage at 0.4 kV consumers with a short-term short circuit on the 10 kV side: 1—conventional transformer; 2—energy router; 3—energy router without connected electric vehicle batteries.
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Figure 9. Change in the charge of electric vehicle batteries during a short circuit on the 10 kV side.
Figure 9. Change in the charge of electric vehicle batteries during a short circuit on the 10 kV side.
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Figure 10. Voltage on the 0.4 kV side of the energy router with an additional load connected.
Figure 10. Voltage on the 0.4 kV side of the energy router with an additional load connected.
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Figure 11. Signal from DC voltage regulator.
Figure 11. Signal from DC voltage regulator.
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Figure 12. Signals from the energy router voltage regulator when connecting an additional load: (a)—signal along the d axis ; (b)—signal along the q axis.
Figure 12. Signals from the energy router voltage regulator when connecting an additional load: (a)—signal along the d axis ; (b)—signal along the q axis.
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Figure 13. The voltage harmonics at 0.4 kV consumers in the presence of energy router with the proposed voltage regulator.
Figure 13. The voltage harmonics at 0.4 kV consumers in the presence of energy router with the proposed voltage regulator.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Bulatov, Y.; Kryukov, A.; Kizhin, V.; Suslov, K.; Iliev, I.; Beloev, H.; Beloev, I. Modeling an Energy Router with an Energy Storage Device for Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Sustainable Development of Power Supply Systems. Sustainability 2025, 17, 11041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411041

AMA Style

Bulatov Y, Kryukov A, Kizhin V, Suslov K, Iliev I, Beloev H, Beloev I. Modeling an Energy Router with an Energy Storage Device for Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Sustainable Development of Power Supply Systems. Sustainability. 2025; 17(24):11041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411041

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bulatov, Yuri, Andrey Kryukov, Vadim Kizhin, Konstantin Suslov, Iliya Iliev, Hristo Beloev, and Ivan Beloev. 2025. "Modeling an Energy Router with an Energy Storage Device for Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Sustainable Development of Power Supply Systems" Sustainability 17, no. 24: 11041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411041

APA Style

Bulatov, Y., Kryukov, A., Kizhin, V., Suslov, K., Iliev, I., Beloev, H., & Beloev, I. (2025). Modeling an Energy Router with an Energy Storage Device for Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Stations and Sustainable Development of Power Supply Systems. Sustainability, 17(24), 11041. https://doi.org/10.3390/su172411041

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