A Three-Stage Process for Sustainable Telework Adoption

Abstract

In recent years, telework (TW) has been seen as a feasible and flexible alternative to deal with global and market risks; however, companies’ lack of vision and planning to implement it has generated the reality that TW, far from bringing advantages, generates personal and social labour conflicts. The objective of this research is to design a TW adoption sustainable process (TW-ASP) that guides the development of organizational strategies to maximize benefits and mitigate challenges for companies, employees, and society. This qualitative study comprises three phases: a review of previous research in Web of Science, identification and inter-relation of relevant variables, and TW-ASP design using Cooper’s stage-gate methodology. The process includes three stages, and each one has a gate: TW thinking, TW decision, and TW adoption. Each stage and gate is structured according to linkages between technological, organizational, labour, and social variables. TW-ASP positions TW as a sustainable initiative requiring a holistic and systemic approach. This study offers a proposal that can serve as a reference for designing organizational strategies aimed at sustainability.

1. Introduction

Nowadays, companies not only try to be competitive, but also profitable, productive, and sustainable, so they must keep searching and/or constantly generating options to achieve this, either through design and/or process improvement, products, and/or technology. However, challenges are becoming more prominent, mainly those caused by the following: environmental issues, from pollution to extreme weather; social issues, such as population concentration in urban areas, leading to insecurity and impact on urban mobility [1]; and demographic issues [2], such as labour shortages and an ageing population. This ageing trend is not limited to high-income countries, as it is also emerging in middle- and low-income nations. By 2050, 22% of the global population will be over 60. These individuals contribute in various ways to their families, but they are also at a higher risk of experiencing a range of health issues [3]. Additionally, the development and application of information technologies have enhanced the role of knowledge workers and transformed management practices [4].

This has led companies to develop strategies, adopt practices, and implement processes that address global risks [1], while attracting, utilizing, and retaining their workforce—specifically, telework (TW) [5,6]. TW is a work modality that allows companies to continue their operations remotely, as happened during the pandemic caused by COVID-19. At that time, TW adoption was compulsory and unplanned, and companies had to comply with official provisions without considering their conditions and/or limitations; this is most visible in the lack of preparation and workers’ consent [7]. TW helped mitigate the spread of the virus. However, it led to new conflicts and challenges, at work and in workers’ personal lives [8].

Countless companies have opted for TW, either out of necessity or as an adaptation strategy [9,10], for continuing business and preserving employees’ safety [11]. This has modified workforce dynamics, causing implications for workers, the company, and society [9,10]. Undoubtedly, TW adoption needs to be planned, primarily, to ensure three aspects.

First, it is essential to establish the right conditions to guarantee its effectiveness, which mainly depends on formal policies (regulations) for its implementation [12]. Second, it is crucial to promote labour rights and equity at the workplace [13]. Research suggests that teleworkers frequently work longer hours than those specified in their employment contracts [14] and often face role overload, leading to conflicts between work and family life [8,15]. Lastly, workers must have skills to use TW effectively [5,16]. Additionally, government initiatives that promote digital and data infrastructure, as well as privacy and cybersecurity, for the company and its human resources are important [4].

A sudden and hasty TW adoption, far from benefiting the company, can lead to problems such as decreased productivity, profitability, competitiveness [16,17], and sustainability. Therefore, the following questions arise: what variables influence TW dynamics? What process should companies follow to ensure an effective TW adoption? Hence, the objective of this research is to design a sustainable TW adoption process that serves as a guide for preparing organizational strategies that maximize the advantages and reduce the challenges that TW represents for companies, workers, and society.

This article is organized into five sections: (1) Introduction, which outlines the issue of TW and this research objectives; theoretical framework, which discusses theoretical foundations and previous studies related to TW; (2) materials and methods, which describes the methodology used for model design; (3) results, which explain the TW adoption process; (4) discussion, which presents key findings and implications regarding TW; and (5) conclusions, which addresses this study’s limitations and suggests directions for future research.

1.1. Theoretical Framework

1.1.1. Telework

TW is considered a subcategory of ‘remote work’ [18]. Although there is no international statistical definition of the latter, it generally refers to situations where work is carried out wholly or partially in a location other than a designated workplace. Specifically, TW is characterized by workers who perform their duties remotely, using information and communication technologies (ICT) and/or personal electronic devices. TW is not included in any area of international statistical standards [19]. Therefore, TW is a form of work where employees complete their tasks from a location that is not their usual workplace. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, TW gained greater acceptance and recognition as a viable alternative to traditional office work [18].

1.1.2. Place of Work

This concept is fundamental to grasping TW’s essence, as it refers to the location where a worker is expected to perform their regular or frequent job duties, specifically the economic unit site. It is important to understand that the place of work is not confined to a single location. In a TW arrangement, workers are offered flexibility of predetermined alternative workplaces—locations where their work will be executed through personal electronic tools or devices, such as mobile or landline phones, tablets, or computers. These tools facilitate communication with colleagues, customers, suppliers, and other actors, and support work-related task execution [19]. It is crucial to highlight that TW does not have to be exclusively full-time or confined to a single workplace. It can be combined to fulfill the company’s and teleworkers’ needs and preferences [20]. Therefore, companies must proactively plan for alternative workplaces for TW, analyze teleworkers’ mobility patterns, and identify high-mobility workers—those who frequently operate from various locations—and those with low mobility—those who work in different locations but on a limited basis [19].

1.1.3. Types of TW

Based on the Kurland and Bailey classification [21], four distinct types of TW are identified: (i) ‘home-based telecommuting’, where a teleworker conducts their tasks from home; (ii) ‘satellite offices’, locations provided by the company so that teleworkers can work at a distinct place from their home or main office; (iii) ‘neighbourhood work centres’, which are similar to satellite offices but accessible to teleworkers from various companies; and (iv) ‘mobile working’, which is characterized by the absence of a fixed location or specific time for work activities. Evidence suggests that the most prevalent and thoroughly researched form of TW is home-based telecommuting [22], particularly due to challenges and conflicts related to maintaining a healthy work–life balance for teleworkers [23].

1.1.4. Applicable Theories

From a resource-based view, [24] and human capital theory [25], people working for a company are valuable, not only for their significant performance, but also because they cannot be imitated or replaced by the competition; they are a competitive advantage. That is the reason for the company to have teleworkers, who possess knowledge and competitively valuable skills, apart from a guarantee of their organizational capabilities [26]. Particularly, human resource administration processes (HRM) must be able to attract and retain teleworkers that generate profits for the company, productivity, capacity for innovation, flexibility, and profitability [27]. It should be noted that, due to workers’ relevance, companies can no longer afford to replace them on a whim, especially because workers are free to choose where and how to invest their talent, energy, and time [25]. Therefore, the resource-based view favours TW for focusing on developing and using resources, abilities, and opportunities, specifically on workers, as they can strengthen strategic capacity [24].

In addition, the control theory contributes to a better understanding of TW function, especially for aligning organizational goals and workers’ performance to ensure proper company operation. Control theory is based on establishing formal and informal control mechanisms. The formal ones are applied to organizational processes focused on results. Informal control mechanisms are related to workers’ abilities, their commitment to organizational goals, and information exchange, which is the key for TW [28].

1.1.5. Previous Research

According to various studies, TW generates benefits not only for companies but also for teleworkers, the environment, the economy, and society. Despite being a concept that is not new, TW adoption has developed relatively slowly [11,29]. This hesitance is attributable to significant implications not only for organizations but also for teleworkers themselves. Numerous studies have focused on exploring TW effects, particularly related to productivity [30], job satisfaction [31], social isolation [32], communication [33], and work–life balance [23]. There are studies that focus on developing proposals for an effective TW adoption. A literature review conducted on Web of Science revealed that these studies predominantly proposed either a method, methodology, process, system, or model. A search for publications employing the descriptors ‘telework’ and ‘method’ yielded research aimed at examining telework’s impact on companies and workers through various methods [34,35,36,37,38].

When investigating ‘telework’ and ‘methodology’ descriptors, findings primarily centre on measuring telework (TW) adoption and modelling its environmental impact [39] and identifying the main and subordinate significant factors that influence TW strategies [40]. Studies focusing on ‘telework’ and ‘process’ aim to develop a model that elucidates TW as a dynamic process, wherein teleworkers continuously adapt their relationships, boundaries, and identities in accordance with their work and personal needs [41]. About research on ‘telework’ and ‘system’, several studies propose the following: an Internet of Things (IoT) system for monitoring work status [42], and a system based on teleworker posture detection, designed to mitigate health issues. Broadly speaking, these are studies focused on workers and the effects that TW can have on them.

Findings regarding studies on “telework” and “model” show models measuring desire to telework, considering the following: workload, quality of life, experience, and organizational support for TW [43]; organizational dynamics factors interacting from a systemic view [44]; and modelling multiple cause indicators to determine factors that influence telework satisfaction [16] and TW election [45]. We also found models focused on exploring correlations between TW and job performance [46], teleworkers’ residence choices within the digital society and economy context [47], a destructive leadership role in TW [48], latent class choice to determine motives that lead to TW [49], and the relationship between TW, labour resources, and demands, and sustainable employability [50]. Those studies analyze correlations between factors associated with TW, job satisfaction, and performance. It is important to note that none of those models proposes an explicit and detailed TW adoption process.

In the literature review, we also identified studies that we consider relevant to analyze, which are decision makers responsible for TW adoption. Hence, we also searched for studies using the descriptors “Telework” and “decision”. Findings show that local government’s decisions are key to enabling TW, from factors involving influence [51]. Likewise, company managers’ decisions and workers’ TW requests [5]. ICT and teamwork are determinants for TW decision-making [52], workers’ health [53], and workers’ desire to continue the TW modality [8].

In conclusion, findings indicate a growing interest in TW [22]; however, there remains a limited number of studies addressing workforce dynamics and the impact of TW adoption [9]. There is a scarcity of research focused on elucidating the relationship between TW adoption and eligibility criteria [22], as well as studies to provide practical guidance for companies looking for an effective TW adoption. Therefore, through the TW-ASP, we intend to propose a systemic and holistic framework to serve as a reference for managers and researchers to design organizational strategies and policies aimed at sustainability. Unlike existing models and/or processes in the literature, TW-ASP proposes TW adoption as a process, where each stage requires a necessary condition to be met to continue with the next stage, for ensuring its effective adoption.

2. Materials and Methods

This research adopts a qualitative and exploratory approach [54] conducted in three distinct phases. The first one involves a comprehensive review, which entails searching, retrieving, and analyzing prior studies published on Web of Science, recognized as one of the most rigorous databases with a diverse array of research outputs. The second phase focuses on preparation, in which key variables influencing TW are identified. Finally, the third phase encompasses design of a TW adoption sustainable process (TW-ASP), grounded in the stage-gate methodology [55]. Each phase is elaborated upon below. See Figure 1.

2.1. Phase I. Review

PRISMA methodology [56] was employed to conduct a comprehensive literature review, available on Web of Science, using ‘telework’ as the primary descriptor because of its prevalence in academic discourse. Three inclusion criteria were established: (i) publication must be a freely accessible scientific article; (ii) the title of the publication must contain the search descriptors; and (iii) the article must be published in English. It is important to note that publications failing to meet these inclusion criteria were excluded, as those whose objectives diverged from the aims of this research or fell outside the relevant field of study. The review process was conducted in three stages: identification, filtering, and inclusion. To enhance identification of pertinent publications, six combinations were created using the descriptor ‘telework’ and connected by the term ‘and’. See Figure 2.

The first combination employs the descriptor ‘method’, identifying five publications. During the filtering stage, titles and abstracts are scrutinized to evaluate their eligibility. Since they satisfy the inclusion and exclusion criteria, all five are incorporated. The second combination uses ‘methodology’, resulting in two identified publications, and both were included, following eligibility assessment. The third combination, using the descriptor ‘process’, reveals three publications. Two are excluded for being irrelevant, leaving only one publication for inclusion. The fourth combination, centred on ‘system’, identifies three publications; one is dismissed as irrelevant to the topic, while two publications are accepted. The fifth combination, related to ‘model’, uncovers ten publications. Following the eligibility assessment, nine publications are included, and one is excluded due to a lack of relevance. The sixth combination with the descriptor ‘decision’ identifies five publications, all are included as they meet the established and exclusion criteria. In total, 24 publications were included and analyzed to develop the problem statement.

2.2. Phase II. Preparation

Based on the literature review conducted in this research, along with Almeida’s review [22] (which facilitated variable identification), 46 variables related to TW (home type) were collected. They were empirically categorized into three groups: the first group was for variables influencing companies’ consideration for TW adoption; the second group included variables influencing the decision to adopt TW; and the third group groups variables that affect TW adoption. Interdependencies among the 46 variables identified were elucidated, highlighting positive and/or negative effects each variable exerts on others. A causal loop diagram is developed to enhance the visualization and comprehension of causal relationships and effects among TW variables.

2.3. Phase III. Design of TW Adoption Sustainable Process

The TW adoption sustainable process (TW-ASP) was developed based on the causal loop diagram, drawing inspiration from the stage-gate methodology [55]. It is important to note that, while this methodology was created to ensure the effectiveness of new product process management, it is deemed relevant and beneficial for process design in this research; it allows each process stage to be clearly structured and ensures a company meets the determined expectations at each stage, reducing risks and increasing TW effectiveness. Basically, methodology consists of determining those stages that integrate the process. The causal diagram helps to visualize and integrate variables that constitute each TW-ASP stage. Methodology suggests that not only is it necessary to establish a stage, but also to ensure that its condition is accomplished; that is the reason for gates are so important, and they serve as a filter to continue with the next stage.

TW-ASP gate selection criteria were derived from the causal diagram. Variables that comprise different gates are determined by their interdependence—both positive and negative—with other variables. These gates are crucial to the whole procedure; they influence two critical aspects: first, current stage completion, and second, the decision to either progress to the next stage or to revisit the current stage if it remains incomplete. Criteria chosen for each gate are designed to facilitate condition assessment at each stage, and to aid in formulating an action plan for subsequent stages. In summary, the TW-ASP framework is structured into three stages and three gates.

3. Results

3.1. Causal Loop Diagram of TW Adoption Sustainable Process in the Company

The causal loop diagram comprises 46 variables integral to TW adoption. These variables are categorized into three distinct groups. The first group, “TW Thinking”, consists of six factors that influence TW perception as a viable work modality for companies. It includes the following: natural disasters, labour mobility, official health provisions, environmental pollution, alternative work, and regulatory framework. The second group, “TW Decision”, encompasses six critical organizational variables that impact the decision-making process regarding TW adoption. These variables are organizational strategy, the company’s financial situation, ICT, job design, organizational process, organizational structure of the job, and employers’ skills. The third one groups 34 variables that interact in TW adoption and are related to the company, steelworkers, and society/environment. See

Table 1. Variables that interact in TW adoption.

TW Thinking	TW Decision	TW Adoption
-Natural disasters. -Labour mobility. -Official health provisions. -Environmental pollution. -Alternative work. -Regulatory framework.	-Company’s financial situation. -ICT. -Job skills. -Employers. -Organizational processes. -Organizational structure. -Design jobs.	-Managing teleworkers. -TW policies. -Work flexibility. -Job opportunities. -Labour inclusion. -Digital/literacy skills. -ICT-based communication. -Physical environment in organization. -Geographic location barrier. -Absenteeism. -Harm to environment. -Leadership. -Autonomy. -Family and leisure time. -Balance in personal and professional life. -Time to obtain information. -Social and professional isolation. -Face-to-face conversation.	-Time on informal conversation. -Belonging in the workplace. -Collaboration. -Creativity. -Time and cost of travel. -Job satisfaction. -Work exhaustion. -Stress. -Engagement. -Organizational culture and identity. -Recruiting and retaining employees. -Cost reduction. -Productivity. -Innovation. -Teleworker health. -Strengthening the local economy.

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Finally, Figure 3 presents the causal loop diagram, which delineates interconnections among variables within the following three groups: thinking/option, decision to adopt TW, and TW adoption. It elucidates positive and/or negative influences that each variable exerts on the others, as indicated by symbols ‘+’ and ‘−’ at the end of each arrow. It is important to note that variables from the TW thinking group and from the TW decision group are considered driving variables leading to TW adoption. Figure 3 also illustrates the connection with TW adoption (where causality of variables that define it is shown) and with sustainability. Description of inter-relation and impact among variables is in TW-ASP, which is outlined in Section 3.2.

3.2. TW Adoption Sustainable Process

TW-ASP comprises three stages and three gates: (I) TW thinking, (II) TW decision, and (III) TW adoption, as illustrated in Figure 2. Each stage is characterized by a distinct set of variables that establishes a specific TW condition. Each gate assesses whether the company has successfully completed a preceding stage [55]. To progress from stage I to stage II, the company must demonstrate, through gate I, that it has fulfilled the requirements of stage I, and this process continues until TW adoption is fully realized. It is a cyclical process, based on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). A detailed TW-ASP representation is provided in Figure 4.

• Stage I. TW Thinking

TW initiation is contingent upon specific conditions and requirements of the company’s context, which leads to TW adoption as a work modality. This was particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, when many companies transitioned to TW [9] in response to restrictive measures imposed by the government to safeguard public and environmental health, as highlighted by various authors in their studies [22]. Consequently, one critical variable to consider in stage I is official health provisions.

It is important to notice that, although universal guidelines that regulate TW have been launched [18], each country has its own social norms and different ways to conceive work, personal life, and family [5]. Therefore, companies must also consider the following variables: alternative work and regulatory framework, from the social and legal contexts where they operate. In addition, according to the Almeida literature review (2024), this is another key variable to TW thinking, as this variable focuses on workers’ geographical location, their willingness to change from one job to another, or from one workplace to another. Thus, it is essential for companies to observe this variable’s behaviour, due to the challenge geographical displacements represent for workers, and even because of the close relationship between labour mobility and population demographic conditions, particularly age. For young people, TW results are satisfactory, while it is unattractive for the elderly [16]. An example was observed during the COVID-19 pandemic, when elderly employment significantly decreased, and early retirements increased due to stress caused by ICT use at TW [8]. In addition to this, it is expected that in 2050 the proportion of people over 60 years will double, going from 12% to 22% [3], bringing a worker shortage in different fields [57].

Natural disasters and environmental pollution are conditions that lead to thinking on TW, as they appear more frequently and with higher intensity, causing significant damage and considerable economic losses in high- in middle-income economies [58]. There is no doubt that these two variables affect labour mobility and lead to reflection on work alternatives, such as TW.

After analyzing key variable behaviour, stage I ends when the company has detected all contextual opportunities and threats that are important for thinking about TW as a possible option to be adopted. This step is essential before continuing to stage II.

• Gate I.

Gate I consists of evaluating stage I, which entails verifying that the company performed a proper context analysis that led to the identification of the need to consider TW as a convenient work modality according to contextual conditions. A checklist [59] is developed as an evaluation instrument for stage I, and it has been sketched as an example to help guide companies in their context analysis; each company must adapt it according to its own needs (See

Table 2. Checklist for TW thinking.

Variable	Context for TW	TW Thinking
Are there official health provisions?	Positive	Yes
Is it possible to adopt alternative working methods other than face-to-face?	Positive	Yes
Is there a regulatory framework for TW?	Positive	Yes
Are there conditions that favour labour mobility?	Positive	Yes
Are there conditions that contribute to an increase in environmental pollution levels?	Positive	Yes
Are there conditions that increase the likelihood of a natural disaster?	Positive	Yes

). This instrument consists of six questions: (i) Are there official health provisions? (ii) is it possible to adopt alternative work that is different from the in-person mode? (iii) is there an established regulatory framework for TW? (iv) are there conditions that support labour mobility? (v) are there factors contributing to an increase in environmental pollution levels? and (vi) are there circumstances that heighten risk of natural disasters? Responses to these questions should be used to assess whether the context is conducive or detrimental to TW implementation. If the assessment indicates a positive context, it becomes pertinent for the company to contemplate TW as a viable working option.

• Stage II. TW Decision

Context analysis guided the company to consider TW. Stage II focuses on an intern analysis to guide the company to decide to adopt TW. This decision can be perceived by the company as a challenge because it implies not only adopting a work modality, but also a business strategy reconsideration [44,49]. It is for that reason that organizational variable evaluation is essential before adopting TW. The most cited variables by research studies are a company’s financial situation, organizational processes, organizational structure, organizational information and communication technology, job skills of employers, strategy/policy, and job design.

So, before adopting TW, a company must analyze resources and costs involved, for example, to provide an infrastructure to use digital technologies, technical support at home, and efficient organizational tools to achieve work goals [44,53]. This is in addition to training and incentives to motivate employees to TW [44]. Therefore, analyzing a company’s financial situation to ensure there are economic resources necessary to cover these costs is indispensable.

Organizational information and communication technology needed for TW must also be evaluated, given its relevance for ensuring a smooth work process. This variable contemplates, for example, hardware, programming software, team collaboration software, project management software (to supervise work activities), cloud storage platforms, and tools needed for interaction (group calling apps or videoconference apps and email are the most used tools) [44].

Another variable that is pertinent to consider is the company’s organizational processes. It is recommended to analyze all processes and job positions to define those that can be performed on TW, those that require adaptations, and those that cannot be performed remotely [11]. TW affects complex business dynamics that encompass workplace, workforce, workload, and work itself [44]. Thus, the design of jobs must be reviewed. It is important to consider how TW collectively favours the company’s productivity. Therefore, it is important to ensure that different positions’ functions are not isolated tasks and that positions are clearly defined and linked [11,53]. In most cases, companies opt for redesigning their processes to ease TW adoption and to facilitate a more direct relationship between strategic, tactical, and operational levels. Work redesign can improve organizational effectiveness and workers’ well-being at the same time [5].

According to some studies, processes that require decision-making and close collaboration are difficult to develop through TW [5,44]. However, there are studies that demonstrate that factors related to workers and their relationships are more important and determinant in deciding if TW should be adopted [5]. Consequently, it is convenient to analyze and reorganize coordination and communication flows. And it is likewise convenient to conduct a complete review of processes and workflows to decide on TW adoption. This facilitates its implementation and provides confidence in the workplace, helping to reduce physical and psychological boundaries [11]. Organizational structure is key to promoting information availability and flow [44]. TW has strengthened organizational structure, decentralization, and team leader collaboration [60].

Then, it is also necessary to analyze a company’s formal policies to guarantee working conditions, remote management, communication, and work teams/resources [53]. Fundamentally, those should ensure universal TW access and fair treatment to all workers [5], transparency policies, accessibility for workforce policies, and workers’ reward policies [44]. In addition to health policies for processes, and to promote the company’s and workers’ well-being [53].

Another determinant variable to choose TW adoption is the job skills of employees. Digital skills are core abilities workers must possess [61]. TW requires the ability to use digital devices, networks, and communication apps to locate, evaluate, store, produce, present, and exchange information. They also must have abilities for communicating, solving problems, and participating in collaborative networks. According to some studies, digital tools make communication more difficult than when working in person [44], and TW is more common among highly skilled workers [5,21]. Informatics and digital literacy [62] build workers’ resilience [9,61,63].

Additionally, TW requires self-management skills [5] and relational skills that are essential to build quality relationships based on active listening and techniques for exchanging resources and setting mutual expectations [64]. In addition to abilities, this variable includes demographic and socioeconomic worker conditions, both related to TW adoption and effectiveness. Those variables are as follows: age, gender (female/male), educational level, worker type, residential location, household income, housemates, and housemates’ age (household structure and household children) [49].

Finally, a company’s integral context analysis must evaluate favourable and unfavourable conditions to adopt TW. Stage II ends when the TW adoption decision is made, due to the accomplishment of suitable conditions, or when TW adoption is postponed or it is discarded as a feasible working mode for the company.

• Gate II

The stage II objective is to confirm successful completion of stage I. A checklist comprising six fundamental questions is proposed to verify that a complete analysis of determinant variables has been conducted. This analysis is essential for making an informed decision regarding TW adoption within the organization and for advancing to stage III. Refer to

Table 3. Checklist for deciding to adopt TW.

Variable	Variable Condition	TW Adoption
What is company’s financial situation for TW?	Positive	Yes
Can organizational processes be carried out remotely?	Positive	Yes
Does organizational structure enable TW?	Positive	Yes
Is there an adequate organizational infrastructure for information and communication technology available for TW?	Positive	Yes
Do workers possess required job skills for TW?	Positive	Yes
Do company policies promote your well-being and that of your employees by adopting TW?	Positive	Yes

for further details.

• Stage III. TW Adoption

In order to decide to adopt TW, stage III consists of ensuring that the proper conditions are met for an effective implementation. Some determinant variables must be considered: those that depend directly on the company, those related to teleworkers, and those linked to society. This way, TW adoption urges the implementation of TW policies, the management of teleworkers, and the promotion of digital/literacy skill development, see Figure 1. According to some research studies, those three variables are essential for TW, as they influence performance, productivity, innovation, and work commitment [9].

During this stage, a company must design formal TW policies, aligned with organizational guidelines and supported by senior management [9,65], and they must meet workers’ needs [66] to ensure information exchange and delimitation of stakeholder action [28]. In addition, for regulating capacity and work pressure, this process ensures sustainable employability [50], equal opportunities, and fair treatment for all the company’s workers [67,68]. Among the most common conflicts that occur during TW are those happening between in-person workers and teleworkers, mainly because of the feeling of inequality [69].

It is important to note that TW policies effectively benefit autonomy, job opportunity, and work flexibility, in addition to managing teleworkers and leadership within the company, and increasing organizational performance [65]. Therefore, managing teleworkers effectively is required; to achieve this, work structures must be compatible with TW characteristics, and organizational controls must not only support information exchange, but also result obtention, instead of just following up [70].

Meanwhile, supervision is a TW challenge [69]. TW undoubtedly changes the power balance between supervisor and subordinate teleworker. This happens from the moment a teleworker can decide when and where to work; supervisors can no longer evaluate subordinates’ performance through direct observation, as they would do in an in-person mode. This leads supervisors to take a guardian attitude, which hampers building a supervisor–subordinate relationship based on trust and mutual benefit. This relationship is essential for achieving TW goals [5].

ICT is a compulsory element for performing TW [8,9]. The company must ensure they have technology resources available to meet TW demands [8,71], not only regarding quantities, but also regarding proper functioning. Teleworkers must also have access to the ICT they require to perform their tasks [71] and possess digital skills to use those technologies [8], including digital literacy [72], the ability to communicate through ICT, self-reliance, and confidence [53]. Fulfilling these requirements reduces work tension [8]. However, given how quickly ICT can change or be updated, companies are forced to acquire new technological tools and to improve and/or develop their workers’ new skills [8] to ensure a resilient workforce [63].

ICT-based communication benefits the management of teleworkers, which in turn, is expected to foster leadership support that leads to availability and participation of skilled workers eligible for TW [73]. Leadership is an important variable for an effective TW adoption [74], that positively influences teleworkers’ autonomy. Both variables have direct capacity to enhance ICT-based communication, which is grounded in work and support networks [75] that facilitates organizational resource use [76]. Autonomy has a positive effect on teleworkers’ social and professional isolation, which could restrict knowledge exchange flow and negatively impact ICT-based communication [77,78]. It should be emphasized that teleworkers’ isolation decreases face-to-face conversation with supervisors and colleagues [77], which facilitates ICT-based communication. But, as real-world communication is scarce, this deteriorates relationships between workers [44,79]. So, a lack of social contact can have a negative impact on the feeling of belonging in the workplace [80], and this does not favour engagement [44].

However, isolation helps to reduce the time taken for informal conversation, helping to increase process efficiency for task planning and improve concentration, which is difficult to achieve when working in a shared space, where it is easy to interact and lose concentration due to distractions that arise, such as conversations with colleagues, phone calls, and attending emergent situations [44]. Nevertheless, those informal conversations enrich ideas, information exchange, and comments that improve ICT-based communication, while benefiting creativity and collaboration, which are key to increasing a company’s capacity for innovation.

So, teleworkers, when isolated, can focus more on increasing time to obtain information, but that can lead them to experience greater stress, because of the energy and time they have to invest in not being at the company’s facilities [81], and because of an increased workload [82]. This can also lead to work exhaustion, both mental and physical [83], which is exacerbated when it is involuntary [72]. To mitigate this, it is important to moderate work intensity; otherwise, there is a risk of reducing engagement [9,83]. Thus, TW policies must be flexible, effective, and sustainable, so they favour communication and coordination among all stakeholders [84], promoting job opportunities that lead to work flexibility, and allowing workers to select TW as a work modality and the place to perform their tasks leads to a decrease in the use of physical environment in organization, reducing harm to the environment and geographic location barriers [85]. This also reduces workers’ travel time and cost, increasing availability and range of human talent for the company [86].

When there is TW flexibility, workers’ decreases [86]. Among the most frequent reasons for absenteeism are illness and the responsibility for caring for a family member [5]. Hence, the importance of implementing policies that give teleworkers freedom to determine when and how to develop their tasks, since results are more important [9]. This freedom increases job opportunity possibilities, leading to greater labour inclusion and generating a positive impact on job satisfaction to raise engagement [81].

Thus, work flexibility and autonomy benefit balance in personal and professional life, giving teleworkers the opportunity to negotiate and to harmoniously and effectively adapt their work context to the needs of their personal life [41]. Promoting job satisfaction increases family and leisure time for workers. However, there is a risk that teleworkers work in the same space where their relatives live [44], causing a work–family conflict. Thus, companies must ensure domestic space conditions are optimal for TW [71]. Companies must also take into account teleworkers’ disabilities, so boundaries between work and personal life can be established properly. It is common for teleworkers either to work during their spare time or find it difficult to disconnect from work [87]. This could be perceived as work exhaustion and cause stress, having a negative impact on balance in personal and professional life, and reducing family and leisure time.

Finally, stage III ends when the company has adopted TW effectively, which will be observed, principally, through innovation [81] and productivity [88], both of which are based on engagement, strengthening organizational culture and identity.

• Gate III

Gate III’s objective is to ascertain whether the company has successfully adopted TW. It is recommended that the evaluation focus on positive TW impact on key variables such as organizational culture and identity, innovation, productivity, cost reduction, employee recruitment and retention, teleworker health, and local economy reinforcement. Fundamental questions for evaluating Gate III are presented in

Table 4. Checklist for TW adoption.

Variable	Condition of Variable	TW Adoption
Does organizational culture and identity favour TW in the company?	Positive	Yes
Does adopting TW in the company boost innovation capacity?	Positive	Yes
Does adopting TW promote productivity in the company?	Positive	Yes
Does adopting TW contribute to cost reduction in the company?	Positive	Yes
Does adopting TW in the company increase employees recruiting and retaining?	Positive	Yes
Does adopting TW in the company promote teleworker health?	Positive	Yes
Does TW in the company contribute to strengthening local economy?	Positive	Yes

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The aim of these questions is to encourage the company to engage in deeper reflections regarding each variable. In terms of organizational culture and identity, all factors that influence individual and organizational behaviours are considered. This consideration is evident in employees’ health, well-being, and performance. Key aspects include well-being and health that are prioritized by a company’s management approach [53], work environment that supports teleworkers families, presence of formal policies governing TW shape, teleworkers’ behaviours [5], nature of behaviours exhibited by teleworkers at work (such as accountability, kindness, and openness) [9], support from senior management level and among colleagues [8,49,70,82], and establishment of safe environments that foster work–life balance, alongside a sense of collaboration and belonging through teleworkers’ well-being [9].

Productivity can lead to questions about how TW benefits resource optimization and a company’s work [22], mainly, when teleworkers have fewer interruptions from their colleagues and greater work flexibility [21,69]. This enables the company to decrease costs, especially operational costs such as facilities, electricity, water, and safety [9,21,69,86]. Therefore, questions regarding plans to rationalize physical environments can also arise, so that a company can reduce and control TW costs for workers [89].

Regarding teleworker health, it is important to question if the company has identified factors that could affect workers’ well-being and how these will be addressed. This is important because its absence can lead to a negative impact on productivity [8]. Among the most common factors of technological facility deficiency [9], social isolation [32], overwork, technological insecurity [8], and job satisfaction all have a positive impact on teleworker health.

Another variable for evaluating TW adoption is recruiting and retaining teleworkers. The more satisfied teleworkers are with their job [31], the more attractive the company is perceived, favouring human talent attraction and retention, as viewed from workers’ intention not to leave the company or accelerate their retirement process [8]. Finally, TW adoption can be valued based on the positive impact the company is expected to have regarding strengthening the local economy through the inclusion of all those people who had remained outside labour force, and, thanks to TW, have managed to join the labour market; for example, people who are caregivers (for an older adult, children, or someone with a disability), seniors who were thinking about retiring, and those people who live far from the company. So, this variable leads us to questions about job opportunities, saving time and money for transfer, flexibility to live far from work, reducing transport pollution, and the relationship of this variable with labour productivity and economic growth [9,86,90].

3.3. TW-ASP Implications

Deciding to adopt TW in a company is not always easy; it involves visualizing not only the company’s context, but also the workers’ context [5]. Therefore, companies and the government prefer to leave an open question, even when TW is an available option and can bring benefits not only to the company, but also to workers, as reflected in social welfare [16]. TW adoption requires the constructive participation of all those who design organizational development processes. It is important to consider reciprocal links among technological, organizational, labour, and social issues, as they are key factors for effective TW adoption [53]. By introducing and using ICT, connectivity and networking are benefited, bringing more freedom for work decision-making that depends on teamwork and its perceived benefits [52]. Nevertheless, TW leads to greater teleworker autonomy and to a decentralization of a company’s operations [91]. The fact that not all workers have the same chance to adopt TW or the proper home environment for TW should be considered [9], so they could perceive that their performance is not visible to the company, creating a feeling of fear about losing their job [80,88].

Thus, TW requires permanent performance monitoring for workers, in addition to monitoring their work and personal well-being. It is very important that companies have effective human resources management processes [8] to profit and maintain TW benefits and workers’ abilities. Even though TW promotes inclusion, equity becomes a worrying issue when companies adopt various work modalities. Specially, when companies have teleworkers and on-site workers, because both groups may perceive different treatment. Thus, it is convenient to consider integration and motivation for the different groups of workers [5,13]. In addition, ensuring work well-being among workers is promoted by organizational and operational processes and levels is important [53]. To achieve this, it is necessary to understand the connection between the company and its workers (regardless of their type of work) to ensure worker engagement [22].

TW must be adopted according to each company’s needs and context. For example, it can be implemented in a variety of ways: a workplace must not necessarily be a teleworker’s home; work can be partially performed instead of working full-time, this is associated with increased organizational performance, learning, motivation, social and professional relationships [9]; or the initiative to adopt TW can come from workers, not necessarily from the company [22].

The positive aspects of TW do not only focus on cost reduction for the company, but also on increasing human talent attraction and retention [5], and so, TW policies are essential. Finally, TW-ASP implies a company’s commitment to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Therefore, organizational processes must ensure social welfare. In short, TW adoption at the company has economic, operational, labour, and social implications.

4. Discussion

Considering the attributes of TW, its adoption can be perceived as a significant means to advance towards SDGs, due to its positive multidimensional impact [92]. First, it can promote technological development and digital infrastructures (SDG 9) that are key to a company’s competitiveness. Secondly, TW can contribute to the reduction in pollution emissions and climate change mitigation (SDG 13) by diminishing energy consumption in traditional offices and from daily workers’ commutes, creating sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11), and helping with traffic congestion and urban concentrations. TW also contributes to society’s health and well-being (SDG 3) by reducing stress and time spent by workers to travel to their job site, enabling a better quality of life.

Thirdly, TW can minimize physical, geographic, or social constraints, enabling social and economic inclusion, contributing to the reduction in inequalities (SDG 10), particularly regarding gender inequality, mentioned on SDG 5. TW labour flexibility enables teleworkers, especially women, to combine work with their family responsibilities. Undoubtedly, companies’ commitment to society is essential for achieving SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) by creating productive jobs that guarantee equal pay, workplace well-being, and equal employment opportunity.

Companies play a key role in achieving SDGs and ensuring a better future for all. Therefore, it is essential for them to visualize and plan TW adoption with greater depth and to stop looking at TW as something that encourages laziness [46], as it has been observed to accomplish the complete opposite, thanks to technologies that make employees available all the time [22,80]. Companies are required to observe TW from a systemic, holistic perspective [93] because TW adoption implies diverse dimensions and inter-relations, which have been presented by TW-ASP.

5. Conclusions

Recognizing that TW is presented as a viable and flexible alternative with significant potential to enhance the well-being of all stakeholders, the TW adoption sustainable process (TW-ASP) has been developed utilizing Cooper’s stage-gate methodology [55]. This process is structured into three distinct stages, each accompanied by its respective gate: (i) TW thinking, (ii) TW decision, and (iii) TW adoption. Each stage and gate is designed based on intricate inter-relationships among 46 variables. Process progression is influenced primarily by an organization’s context, secondly, by an organization’s specific conditions, and lastly by the interplay between the company, worker, and the surrounding context.

TW-ASP underscores the significance of prioritizing a company’s and its employees’ well-being, recognizing the positive influence they have on an organization’s strategic capabilities [24]. While there exists a body of research on this topic, much of it predominantly examines TW outcomes, including productivity, job satisfaction, innovation, occupational health, and work–life balance [9,22]. There are, to a limited extent, studies that propose models that primarily concentrate on interactions between the factors influencing TW and their resultant effects (e.g., [16,44,45,46]). Additionally, some research has focused on the dynamic processes underlying TW [41]. Despite existing interest in TW within the scholarly literature, this research aims to contribute to the TW adoption process that guides organizations from their initial intent to the implementation of TW. It presents a framework that facilitates the visualization of inter-relationships between various factors and their impacts. Ultimately, TW-ASP emphasizes that TW transcends the notion of merely a work modality, as it needs a holistic and systemic perspective to enable its adoption and to realize the anticipated positive outcomes for the company, its employees, and society. This represents one of the largest practical implications for managers and policymakers.

• Research Limitations

The most visible TW-ASP limitations are the following five limitations: first, the process design comes from a company that was committed to accomplishing SDGs and to implementing policies that ensure equal employment opportunities, a workers’ workplace, and personal well-being. Second, the company’s knowledge of what they have and what they need is assumed. Thus, a company is responsible for deciding on TW implementation, even when workers can take the lead. Thirdly, TW-ASP is a theoretical and generic proposal, based on a literature review, and it requires empirical validation in real companies from industrial sectors and certain cultural, economic, and political contexts. The process does not consider contextual or organizational contingencies, which undoubtedly can cause changes in the behaviour of variables, and therefore, in the TW adoption process. Fourthly, a preview review of studies was performed only on Web of Science, using the descriptor “telework”. Fifth, there is a possible bias regarding variable selection or in the literature interpretation.

• Further Research

Follow-up studies are needed to perform an exhaustive review of Web of Science and other databases, such as Scopus and Google Scholar, using other terms related to TW as search descriptors, such as remote work, virtual work, and home working. This will work towards enlarging the number of variables used to have a broader view of TW and its implications, to validate TW-ASP effectiveness, and to improve the gates tool. Future studies could investigate strategies aligned to SDGs to ensure TW effectiveness.