Landscape Sustainability: From Assessment to Policy—Case of Baabda Forest, Lebanon

Abstract

Peri-urban forests are increasingly threatened by urbanization, fragmented governance, and limited land-use regulation, especially in Lebanon, where these landscapes play crucial ecological and cultural roles. Reliable sustainability assessment tools are needed to capture their multidimensional value and guide conservation strategies. This study applies the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool to Baabda Forest, a peri-urban green space of high ecological and cultural importance on the edge of Beirut, and compares the outcomes both with the LandScale framework and with results previously obtained from the Tannourine Cedar Forest Nature Reserve, a protected site in North Lebanon. Through a mixed-methods approach integrating spatial analysis, ecological fieldwork, socio-perceptual surveys, and institutional review, the research assessed ecological integrity, social functions, economic potential, and perceptual values. Findings show that Baabda Forest demonstrates significant ecological richness, cultural symbolism, and community engagement, but suffers from weak governance, lack of economic mechanisms, and absence of formal legal protection. In contrast, Tannourine benefits from structured management and national recognition, which strengthen its sustainability profile. The comparison between LSA and LandScale further reveals how international tools highlight governance and production issues but overlook cultural and perceptual dimensions that are critical in peri-urban contexts. This study demonstrates the added value of LSA as a holistic framework and emphasizes the need for participatory governance, sustainable economic activation, and legal designation to ensure Baabda Forest’s long-term sustainability, while providing insights transferable to similar landscapes globally.

1. Introduction

Landscape assessment tools are playing an increasingly important role in the protection and conservation of threatened landscapes [1]. Accurate decision-making and law improvement are much needed [2,3]. In recent years, numerous methods and assessment frameworks have been developed to describe and evaluate landscapes [4,5]. However, landscape research is supported by various disciplines, each with its own objectives and focus areas. They support decision-makers in recognizing landscape values, monitoring changes, and prioritizing conservation efforts [6]. Thus, by evaluating ecological, cultural, visual, and socio-economic aspects, these tools help identify areas at risk and guide sustainable land-use planning [2,3]. Also, world landscapes, including Lebanon’s landscapes, reflect a complex relation between natural systems and centuries of human transformation [7,8]. From coastal urban centers to inland forests and mountain terraces, Lebanese landscapes are increasingly vulnerable to urban encroachment, ecological fragmentation [6], and absence of integrated land-use planning [9]. These pressures are especially acute in non-legally protected forests, which are often overlooked in national conservation strategies [10] yet serve as vital green buffers for cities. Landscape assessment tools provide the evidence needed to balance development with the preservation of natural and cultural heritage [4,6].

In response to these challenges, the Lebanese Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool was recently developed [11] to provide a structured framework for evaluating and managing all types of landscapes. Based on quantifiable landscape indicators (LIs), LSA was conceived within the broader vision of integrating environmental, social, and economic indicators to perceptual indicators usually not considered in assessments or considered separately [5], to guide landscape planning decisions at multiple scales [11,12]. Unlike conventional assessment tools, which often focus narrowly on ecological indicators, LSA provides a multidimensional and holistic approach [5,11,12].

Previously implemented at Tannourine Cedar Forest Nature Reserve (TCFNR), North Lebanon, LSA demonstrated the need for further social integration and implication of the Tannourinien community to better host the reserve and provide social activities [11,12]. Baabda Forest, the only remaining natural forest area within the Greater Beirut region, holds immense ecological, recreational, and symbolic significance. It contributes to urban climate regulation and biodiversity conservation and offers critical recreational, cultural, and educational services to the surrounding population [13]. However, despite its multifaceted importance, the forest remains excluded from formal protection programs, as mentioned by Jaradi (2023) [14]. It suffers from land tenure ambiguity, unmanaged public access, and urban sprawl, all exacerbated by a fragmented governance structure [14].

Previous studies on the forest have primarily focused on vegetation typology and biodiversity assessments [15], with no significant integration of holistic sustainability indicators. The application of the LSA framework in this context enables a multidimensional assessment that includes not only biodiversity and ecological value, but also landscape connectivity, visual integrity, recreational value, and institutional stewardship.

1.1. Landscape Sustainability Assessment Tools: International Frameworks and Gaps

The evaluation of sustainability at the landscape scale has attracted growing attention worldwide, reflecting the recognition that ecological, social, and governance challenges are inherently interconnected. Yet, as Medeiros et al. (2021) [5] demonstrate in their systematic review of 239 studies, most frameworks remain fragmented: ecological and land-use indicators dominate, while perceptual, cultural, and socio-economic dimensions are consistently underrepresented. Only five percent of the reviewed studies integrated all six categories of indicators, namely ecological, environmental, socio-economic, land-use, historical–cultural, and perceptual, highlighting the difficulty of achieving true interdisciplinarity in capturing landscapes as complex systems [5,11].

This imbalance is evident across major international frameworks (

Table 1. International landscape sustainability assessment tools, their framing, strengths, and limitations.

Tool	How the Landscape is Framed	Strengths	Limitations	References
LandScale (RA, Verra, CI)	Jurisdictional space integrating ecosystems, governance, production, and well-being	Holistic pillars; scalable; supports corporate accountability	Broad scale; limited inclusion of cultural and perceptual values	[16]
SLRT (CCBA)	Landscape as a governance and policy system	Rapid diagnostics of enabling conditions; policy relevance	Narrow scope; weak ecological and social depth	[17]
Produce–Protect Platforms (EII)	Production landscapes balancing agriculture and forest protection	Strong for commodity frontiers; clear deforestation metrics	Commodity-driven; not suited to multi-functional landscapes	[18]
Commodities–Jurisdictions (WWF/Climate Focus/Meridian)	Jurisdictional landscapes tied to global supply chains	Aligns trade and finance with sustainability	Focused on market alignment; undervalues non-market functions	[19]
LGAF (World Bank)	Landscape as institutional/tenure system	Robust governance analysis; reform-oriented	No ecological or perceptual coverage	[20]
WRI Restoration Diagnostic	Landscape as an ecological asset for rehabilitation	Clear stepwise method; restoration focus	Restoration only; lacks socio-cultural dimensions	[21]

). Tools such as LandScale and the Sustainable Landscapes Rating Tool (SLRT) emphasize governance and accountability [16,17], commodity-oriented frameworks such as Produce–Protect Platforms and the Commodities–Jurisdictions Approach prioritize deforestation and agricultural production [18,19], and governance or restoration-based frameworks such as the Land Governance Assessment Framework (LGAF) and WRI Restoration Diagnostic focus on tenure and ecosystem rehabilitation [20,21]. While these are valuable in their respective realms, they rarely capture perceptual or cultural indicators, precisely the areas where landscapes derive much of their identity and resilience.

What emerges from this international comparison is that most tools emphasize governance, production systems, or restoration readiness, while consistently underrepresenting perceptual, cultural, and socio-territorial dimensions—a gap empirically documented by Medeiros et al. (2021) [5]. The Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool was designed to respond to this gap [11] by equally weighting four dimensions—ecological, economic, socio-territorial, and perceptual. Unlike most global frameworks, it operationalizes cultural identity, visual quality, and community engagement as measurable components of sustainability [12]. While applied in a Mediterranean context, its balanced indicators’ framework offers insights of broader relevance: it demonstrates how landscape assessment can move beyond governance and biophysical indicators to capture the lived, cultural, and perceptual dimensions that determine sustainability outcomes on various landscapes.

1.2. Baabda Forest: A Critical Case for LSA Implementation

The central challenge addressed in this paper is the lack of institutional and legal recognition of the comprehensive value of peri-urban forests—spanning ecological, social, economic, and perceptual dimensions—within Lebanon’s planning and environmental governance frameworks.

Baabda Forest (Figure 1), located on the urban–rural fringe of Greater Beirut, is a peri-urban woodland [22] that plays a vital ecological and socio-cultural role in the Mount Lebanon region. It serves as a green buffer [23,24] in an area experiencing land-use change, real estate pressures, and institutional neglect.

Baabda Forest constitutes a notable example of a peri-urban forest in Lebanon [26], maintaining considerable ecological integrity in the face of encroaching urbanization [27,28]. Located between 100 and 200 m above sea level and covering roughly 10 hectares [22,29], the forest’s proximity to Beirut enhances both its conservation importance and its vulnerability [30]. Biogeographically, the site falls within the Mediterranean evergreen sclerophyllous zone. It is underlain by limestone formations and benefits from a typical Mediterranean climate. These abiotic factors—combined with the forest’s porous soils—foster conditions favorable to rich biodiversity and hydrological function, notably its role in recharging local aquifers and supporting tributaries of the Nahr El Ghadir system [25].

Floral surveys have recorded over 270 vascular plant species [29] across 59 botanical families, including 5 species endemic to Lebanon and 2 endemic to both Lebanon and Syria [27]. The dominant canopy-forming species are Pinus halepensis and Quercus calliprinos, which shape two distinct forest typologies [12,15]. The forest also supports 12 mammal species, 171 avian species—35 of which are confirmed breeders—and 18 species of reptiles and amphibians, several of which are threatened regionally or globally [27]. Also, the site functions ecologically as a critical migratory corridor for raptors, with 30 out of Lebanon’s 40 recorded raptor species passing through the area during migration seasons [27].

Although agriculture within the forest is minimal, pressures from peripheral grazing, informal harvesting, and expanding urban infrastructure remain ongoing threats [16]. The forest’s sensitivity differs by slope aspect: oak-dominated north-facing slopes are more ecologically fragile, while pine-dominated southern slopes support xerophilic communities that are moderately resilient to disturbance [25]. The site also includes constructed rain-fed water ponds that have improved ecological support for avifauna, particularly during dry seasons [30]. Despite these ecological strengths, the forest lacks formal legal protection and is subject to fragmented land-use governance. However, it is embedded in a community that highly values its presence, recognizes its vital importance, and actively engages in its preservation, frequently compensating for the absence of formal government protection.

At the same time, the forest hosted many initiatives towards sustainable development offering structural and technical frameworks such as reforestation, forest management planning, and restoration methods (

Table 2. Sustainability and reforestation projects at/near Baabda Forest, Lebanon.

Project/Initiative	Description	Location and Scope	Date/Status	References
Falougha-Baabda Reforestation	Around 1000 locally sourced seedlings planted by around 90 UN staff from 22 UN agencies in a reforested area, aimed at supporting environmental recovery.	Falougha, Baabda area	14–24 October 2022	[27]
SALMA Project—National Reforestation and Restoration	The “Smart Adaptation of Forest Landscapes in Mountain Areas” project reforested 674 ha across 23 sites and developed 14 forest-level and 3 regional management plans (covering 1230 ha).	Baabda Keserwan and Jezzine	December 2016 to June 2024	[28,29]
SALMA Fire-Prevention Infrastructure	As part of SALMA’s integrated approach, installations included water reservoirs and fire networks to enhance fire resilience.	Near Baabda region	Ongoing as of 2024	[28]
Landscape Restoration Mechanism (FLRM)	FAO-supported efforts to coordinate forest and landscape restoration nationally, including pilot restoration in zones like Shouf Biosphere and Bkassine corridor; relevant for broader landscape-scale approaches near Baabda.	National level, including Baabda region	Since 2016; pilot phase 2016–2018	[30]
Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI)	LRI has planted over 600,000 native seedlings across 30+ sites (cedar, oak, juniper, wild pear, wild almond, etc.) with ~76% survival. It supports planting on religious lands and in rural landscape corridors.	National level, including Baabda-proximate areas	Active since 2015	[31]

). We can mention the Local Reforestation Falougha-Baabda in 2022 (The SALMA reforestation event) and Terre-Liban’s Long-term Stewardship (Since the mid-1990s).

The SALMA reforestation event in October 2022, for example, was a hands-on planting initiative marking UN Day [27], representing large symbolic value plus real ecological impact in the Falougha-Baabda zone. The Terre-Liban association has played a continual role in conserving Baabda Forest—protecting it against fire risk, educating communities, training local volunteers, and collaborating on eco-tourism and sustainability.

The Baabda forest is recognized as a Key Biodiversity Area [32] and provides crucial ecosystem services. However, it faces threats from deforestation, climate change impacts, and fragmentation [26,30]. While it offers eco-tourism opportunities and benefits public health through improved air quality and climate regulation, challenges arise from potential health risks posed by nearby dumpsites and socio-economic concerns in the broader region [33].

The Baabda Forest is actively protected and managed by the Antonin Monastery and TERRE Liban, a local association. Efforts are underway to officially designate it as a nature reserve, and forest guards help enforce regulations. The forest has potential for sustainable fuelwood collection, job creation, and forest-based products. However, this potential must be managed carefully to avoid increasing pressure on the forest’s valuable ecosystem services.

The Baabda Forest case study demonstrates how integrated sustainability assessment tools—such as the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) framework [11] and LandScale [16]—can serve to bridge biodiversity science [14] with practical landscape governance. This case study not only fills a significant gap in the Lebanese landscape planning literature but also provides empirical grounding for adopting the LSA tool through real-world data, stakeholder feedback, and policy alignment mechanisms. The outcomes are intended to inform national-scale replication strategies, improve green space governance, and reinforce the role of forests in urban resilience planning.

2. Materials and Methods

This study adopted a sequential mixed-methods framework combining geospatial analysis, ecological field visits, socio-perceptual investigation, stakeholder interviews, and policy reviews. The methodological design is structured around six interconnected phases (Figure 2), ensuring triangulation across quantitative, spatial, and legal data sources.

2.1. Phase 1: Bibliographic Review and Site Documentation

The study began with a comprehensive review of the scientific literature and institutional documentation relevant to Lebanese forests and Baabda Forest specifically. Sources included national policy documents (e.g., the National Forest Program 2015–2025) [13], unpublished biodiversity assessments (BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT [27] AT HORSH BAABDA), site-specific studies, and cadastral records. This step also involved reviewing archived documentation and documentation from T.E.R.R.E. Liban and the Antonin Maronite Order [16]. This phase provided a foundational contextual study on the forest’s botanical composition, cultural history, and tenure-related conflicts.

2.2. Phase 2: Spatial Mapping Analysis

Geospatial data were collected through Google Earth Pro imagery and overlaid with cadastral data. A polygon representing the forest’s boundaries was manually digitized [16,25] based on visual interpretation and refined using GPS field data collected during site visits. Elevation and slope maps were generated from publicly available digital elevation models (DEMs), while time-series imagery from 2005 to 2023 was used to detect land-use and vegetation change.

2.3. Phase 3: Social and Perceptual Landscape Assessment

To capture how the forest is experienced and valued by users, visitors, and neighbors, a perceptual assessment was carried out in parallel with ecological monitoring. Observational walks documented spatial behavior, trail usage, gathering zones, and accessibility constraints. A series of semi-structured interviews with site users, including managers, staff, and visitors, was conducted using visual prompts. Photo-elicitation was used to document user perspectives on landscape values to assess emotional and cultural associations with the forest. Responses were analyzed thematically to identify recurring perceptions of aesthetic value, cultural attachment, and recreational significance.

2.4. Phase 4: Legal and Institutional Contextualization

The review was intended to investigate the legal context and adversities of peri-urban forests and jurisdictional fragmentation or rigidness. The National Forest Program (2015–2025) [13] and Lebanese legal instruments (e.g., Forest Code 1949, Law No. 558/1996, etc.) were analyzed to assess the feasibility of formalizing forest protection [18]. Emphasis was placed on identifying a framework for forest legalization and integrating the LSA indicators into statutory land-use planning.

2.5. Phase 5: Tool Application and Comparative Benchmarking: LSA vs. Landscale and Baabda Forest vs. Tannourine Cedar Forest Nature Reserve

The Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool was applied as an integrative diagnostic framework to assess the sustainability of Baabda Forest. Developed for all landscape types [11,12] and adapted to Mediterranean contexts and to the Lebanese socio-ecological landscape [14], LSA represents a novel four-dimensional approach, tailored to the landscape planning and management context. Created by R. Aad with the support of N. Nemer and R. el Balaa, it evaluates ecological integrity, social functionality, economic viability, and perceptual value [14]. Furthermore, LSA has been applied in Lebanese landscapes such as TCFNR, demonstrating its adaptability to contrasting ecological and governance contexts.

Each dimension is composed of a set of inventive landscape indicators tailored to site-specific realities and data availability. The scoring framework follows a weighted rubric, with results standardized to a scale from 0 to 100. The tool is summarized in the following:

• Four equitable dimensions (25% weight each), called Landscape Sustainable Dimensions (SLDs).
• Twelve components, also distributed equitably. Each landscape sustainability component accounts for the same weight, that is, 33 or 34 units of the total scoring, and consists of 3 to 5 landscape indicators.
• Fifty-one LIs illustrate the ability of a landscape system or project to generate ecological activities, increase social efficiency, invest in the landscape, and positively impact its surroundings [12].

Each of the four dimensions is assigned equal weight (25%) because landscape sustainability is conceived as a balanced system where ecological integrity, socio-territorial embeddedness, economic viability, and perceptual/cultural values are all interdependent and none can be considered secondary. Within each dimension, the components are also weighted equally to avoid bias toward any single aspect and to ensure comparability across different landscape types. This equitable weighting allows the LSA tool to remain flexible, transparent, and applicable across diverse contexts, while reinforcing the integrative principle that sustainability is multidimensional and cannot be reduced to a single dominant perspective.

The tool’s design is consistent with the objectives of Lebanon’s National Forest Program (NFP) 2015–2025 [13], which emphasizes integrated planning, participatory governance, and the protection of ecological corridors. By aligning scientific assessment with national policy frameworks, the LSA tool offers both diagnostic and planning functions, making it applicable in diverse landscapes ranging from protected forest zones to urban green spaces. Also, sustainable development goals (SDGs) are fulfilled by using LS assessments [34], as is the case with LSA, which can contribute to at least ten SDGs. While some of these contributions are indirect, such as SDGs 8 and 14, others are more direct, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Among them, SDGs 11, 13, and 15 are particularly central to LSA, since the tool evaluates biodiversity and fragmentation, habitat and landscape qualities, ecological regulations, and other indicators. LSA also strengthens collaboration between academia, policy makers, and local communities (SDG 17), a collaboration that facilitates the creation of new employment opportunities (SDG 18).

Through its methodological framework, LSA supports the monitoring and designing of green spaces, thereby improving urban livability and quality of life (fulfilling SDG 11) while enhancing well-being and health (SDG 3). Additionally, as an educational and decision-making tool, LSA promotes sustainability literacy and quality education (SDG 4), empowers inclusive participation in landscape projects (SDG 5), and fosters eco-friendly infrastructure and innovative landscape-based solutions (SDG 9). Finally, by addressing watershed and land management, LSA extends its impact to fulfill SDG 14.

To contextualize findings, the Baabda LSA results will be benchmarked

i.

Against those from the Tannourine Cedar Forest Nature Reserve, a nationally protected site known for its ecological richness and organized governance model. This will provide a comprehensive, data-driven assessment of its landscape sustainability performance across four key pillars: environmental, social, economic, and perceptual.

ii.

Against those from the application of LandScale to the Baabda Forest. This will provide a comprehensive, data-driven assessment of its sustainability performance across four key pillars: ecosystems, human well-being, governance, and production. This will generate valuable insights and actionable results for stakeholders like the Antonin Monastery and T.E.R.R.E. Liban.

The LSA will thus serve not only as an evaluative tool but also as a platform for framing targeted recommendations in the subsequent management roadmap. The results can validate the forest’s significance while highlighting governance and communication deficits that must be addressed to ensure long-term landscape sustainability.

2.6. Phase 6: Addressing Derived Gaps and Formulating Strategic Management Roadmap

Building on the diagnostic insights gained from the results and the comparative analysis, this final phase synthesized the identified sustainability gaps into a strategic roadmap for Baabda Forest. Specific focus was placed on the deficiencies within each dimension, mainly forest identity, sustainable financing mechanisms, and broader government engagement.

3. Results

Building on the methodological framework outlined in the previous section, the application of the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool to Baabda Forest generated a comprehensive dataset covering ecological, economic, socio-territorial, and perceptual dimensions. It also identified strengths and weaknesses for improvement.

On the other hand, the application of the LandScale tool to the Baabda Forest generated an overview of its landscape sustainability, summarizing findings across its four core sustainability pillars (ecosystems, human well-being, governance, production) and highlighting key strengths and areas for improvement.

3.1. Implementing Landscape Sustainability Indicators at Baabda Forest

Following the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) methodology, the results for Baabda Forest BDF reveal a varied landscape sustainability profile. The radar diagram (Figure 4) constructed from the dimension scores clearly identifies the economic dimension as the limiting factor of the site’s landscape sustainability (19/100), falling far below the satisfactory threshold, namely 50/100. The perceptual and socio-territorial dimensions demonstrate solid scores (78/100 and 67/100, respectively), since Baabda Forest maintains considerable scenic, cultural, and biological significance. The ecological dimension, while not poor (58/100), presents important opportunities if well managed.

The scores for each dimension were generated using the Lebanese Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) tool, which integrates both quantitative indicators (such as land cover diversity, accessibility, or productive activities) and qualitative assessments collected through field observations, stakeholder surveys, and expert consultations. Each indicator was normalized to a 0–100 scale and aggregated into component and dimension scores by simple averaging. The satisfactory threshold was set at 50/100, following the methodological framework of the LSA. This threshold represents the minimum acceptable level of sustainability, below which a dimension or component is considered deficient and in need of corrective measures. Values above 50 indicate increasing levels of satisfactory performance, while scores approaching 100 represent exemplary conditions of sustainability.

The twelve sustainability components—three for each dimension, identified in different colors—were assessed and displayed using a bar graph (Figure 5), allowing multivariate comparison of strengths and weaknesses. By disaggregating the results, we obtain a nuanced understanding of the forest’s performance across these components: We can observe that the ecological diversity, esthetic value, and perceptual diversity show the highest grades since they are the closest to and equal to the maxima, whereas the economic sustainability dimension (in orange) revealed the most critical performance gaps among the four assessed areas. These gaps were structured around three components—viability, independency, and efficiency—all of which scored below 30%, indicating a structurally weak and underdeveloped economic base and showing where major interventions are needed.

A closer reading of the landscape indicators reveals the spatial character and function of Baabda Forest with greater precision. While the composite component scores already provide insights into general sustainability strengths and weaknesses, the bar graphs below allow us to dissect which specific indicators contribute to or hinder each dimension. This “third zoom-in” step is essential for identifying actionable gaps and targeted interventions.

In the ecological dimension (Figure 6), indicators such as territorial diversity and land cover diversity scored high, reflecting Baabda’s natural zoning between oak and pine groves. The forest’s slope-based organization contributes to spatial integrity and habitat variation. However, key indicators like accessibility, integrative activities, and soil resources scored poorly. These low values point to a lack of ecological maintenance, absence of nature-based solutions, and minimal water or soil management. While urban pressure is moderate, no buffer zones or restoration activities are in place to counteract degradation.

On the economic level (Figure 7), results were uniformly weak. Indicators such as public/private shares, specialty, and productive activities were nearly absent. Baabda Forest currently operates outside any economic system, lacking services, products, or partnerships. External dependency was evident, and economic independency is nonexistent. As noted by R. Aad [14], without financial pathways or institutional support, landscape sustainability remains vulnerable.

In the perceptual dimension (Figure 8), the indicators showed more favorable results. Composition and landscape coherence, quality, and cover were among the strongest scores, supported by preserved visual lines and tranquil atmosphere. Nonetheless, fragmentation and anthropogenic intervention—notably from informal trails and unmanaged edges—pose threats to landscape integrity. Moreover, the local identity indicator scored surprisingly low, indicating the absence of signage, storytelling, or branding that connects users to the forest’s deeper meaning. Recreational potential exists but remains untapped.

From the socio-territorial perspective (Figure 9), the picture reflects both strong cultural embeddedness and active civic engagement. Indicators such as national reference and patrimonial reference scored high, reflecting the forest’s deep spiritual and cultural value. In contrast to many peri-urban green spaces, Baabda Forest benefits from a significant participatory structure, supported by NGOs like T.E.R.R.E. Liban and collaborations with local schools, residents, and volunteers. While indicators like event hosting and job creation still showed room for improvement, the forest is not a passive space; it is socially animated and valued. Continued support for local engagement, combined with institutional reinforcement, can further enhance its socio-territorial function and capacity for long-term stewardship.

3.2. Comparison to Case Study from Previous Application of LSA

To better understand the significance of Baabda Forest’s assessment results, they were compared with those of the Tannourine Cedar Forest Nature Reserve—one of Lebanon’s best-known protected areas, and the first site where the LSA tool was applied. TNCFR is noted for its ecological diversity and well-structured governance. Tannourine scored 82 in the ecological dimension, 44 in the social, 48 in the economic, and 64 in the perceptual dimension.

This comparison highlights key differences (

Table 3. Comparative landscape sustainability profile.

Category	BDF	TCFNR
Protection Status	Unprotected	Legally protected (Nature Reserve)
Ecological Score	58/100	82/100
Socio-territorial Score	67/100	44/100
Economic Score	19/100	48/100
Perceptual Score	78/100	64/100
Legal Framework	None	Governed by National Law 121 (Nature Reserves)
Governance Model	Informal, private, NGO-led participation	Structured Management Committee (MoE appointed)
Funding Sources	Irregular (NGOs, community efforts)	Public funds, international aid tourism revenue
Visitor Infrastructure	Minimal (informal trails, no signage or facilities)	Organized trails, signage, visitor center
Recognition and Visibility	Local and community-based	Nationally recognized eco-tourism site
Education and Outreach	Occasional school programs and workshops	Structured environmental education programs

). While Baabda demonstrates strong ecological value despite lacking formal protection, it falls short in economic development and structured visitor experience. Tannourine, by contrast, benefits from legal protection, organized infrastructure, consistent funding, and national visibility.

The gap between the two cases makes clear that Baabda’s sustainability cannot rely on ecological strength alone—it needs a coherent governance framework and long-term strategy to ensure its resilience and public value.

3.3. Implementing LandScale at Baabda Forest

Baabda Forest is a vital green lung for the Beirut area but faces a mix of successes and challenges in its sustainability journey. This snapshot uses illustrative scores based on the LandScale framework; however, it is based on the analysis of available information and does not represent official LandScale assessment results, which require extensive data collection and validation.

The results of the Baabda Forest assessment summarize findings across the four core sustainability pillars and highlight key strengths and areas for improvement (

Table 4. Baabda forest: LandScale pillar assessment.

Pillar	Status	Indicators	Score
Ecosystems	-Identified as a Key Biodiversity Area (KBA). -Natural Forest area covers 26% of Baabda’s land. -Experiences deforestation: 14 ha lost in 2024, equating to 3.51 kt of CO2 emissions. -Vulnerable to climate change impacts and fragmentation.	-Biodiversity data. -Deforestation rate (ha/year). -CO2 emissions from forest loss. -Impact of climate change on specific forest species.	7/10
Human Wellbeing	-Faces challenges related to potential health risks from nearby dumpsites. -Socio-economic concerns and high poverty rates exist in some regions of Lebanon. -Eco-touristic activities are organized by Baabda Forest and the TERRE Liban association. -Green spaces improve air quality, regulate temperature, and mitigate noise pollution, benefiting human health and well-being.	-Health risk assessments around dumpsites. -Prevalence of poverty and unemployment. -Number of eco-tourism visitors and economic contribution. -Public health improvements associated with the forest.	5/10
Governance	-Managed by the Antonin Monastery and the TERRE Liban association. -Declared a protected forest by private initiative since 1995. -Efforts are underway to have the forest officially declared a nature reserve. -National policies and strategies for forest management are in place, including community participation. -Forest guards have been appointed by the government to combat illegal activities.	-Status of nature reserve designation. -Effectiveness of governance structures and enforcement mechanisms. -Level of community participation in forest management.	8/10
Production	-Sustainable fuelwood collection is encouraged as a forest fire management strategy. -Forest management residues can be sold. -Potential for forest-based jobs and products. -Value of ecosystem services provided by the forestry sector is estimated at USD 587 per hectare. -Threats to sustainable delivery of ecosystem services due to increasing pressure on forests.	-Fuelwood harvest levels. -Types and quantity of forest products. -Number of jobs created through forest-based industries. -Economic value of ecosystem services.	6/10

). Regarding ecosystems, the assessment highlighted the rich biodiversity within the Baabda Forest, a crucial Key Biodiversity Area. It also provides a baseline for forest health, assessing the extent of any degradation or damage from human activities like illegal logging or fires. The assessment would quantify the value of ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, water regulation, and air quality improvement, provided by the forest. Also, monitoring would reveal current deforestation rates and trends, showing the level of threat to the forest’s integrity.

The human well-being pillar focused on three main elements: recreation and tourism; community engagement, and local livelihoods. The assessment evaluated the use of the forest for recreational activities and eco-tourism by local communities and visitors on one hand and the involvement of local communities in the forest management and conservation efforts on the other hand. While the forest is not primarily agricultural, the assessment uncovered any local livelihoods linked to the forest, like sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products.

The third pillar, governance, represented three components: management effectiveness, policy and regulations, and collaboration. The assessment evaluated the effectiveness of the Antonin Monastery and T.E.R.R.E. Liban’s current management practices and initiatives. It also shed light on the need for policies and regulations regarding forest management and conservation and highlighted the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration for better governance, including engagement with government entities and research institutions.

The production pillar analyzed (i) the forest resources and how they are used, identifying unsustainable practices or resource depletion, and (ii) the economic value of products and services, showing the benefits of sustainable management practices.

4. Discussion

The Baabda Forest’s management history offers insights for sustainable peri-urban forestry. Previous proactive stewardship, stakeholder involvement, and infrastructural planning improved its ecological and social functions. A comprehensive policy framework model is proposed to guide the sustainable management of Baabda Forest.

The sustainability profile of the forest, as revealed through the LSA methodology, illustrates the challenges of sustaining an unprotected peri-urban forest in a rapidly urbanizing city. The findings reflect an ecological and perceptual functional site situated within a socio-territorial framework of moderate coherence, yet economically underdeveloped and institutionally fragmented. As implemented on TCFNR, landscape indicators were calculated and graphically represented. This will ease the understanding of the landscape system by first examining the general situation and then elaborating on the strengths and weaknesses of the studied landscape, to later be able to recommend conservation, elaborate management, propose correction, or, on the contrary, offer protection.

The comparative benchmarking of Baabda Forest through the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) and LandScale reveals differences in how landscapes are understood and evaluated. While LandScale is an important international framework, designed to provide standardized, jurisdictional-level assessments, the results from Baabda show that its orientation toward governance, production, and supply-chain accountability fails to capture the multidimensional values of smaller, culturally embedded landscapes.

By contrast, the LSA demonstrates clear advantages. Its balanced structure integrating ecological, economic, socio-territorial, and perceptual indicators produces a clear portrait of Baabda Forest as both an ecological asset and a cultural landscape. The high scores in perceptual and socio-territorial dimensions, for example, highlight community stewardship, spiritual identity, and scenic quality indicators invisible in LandScale’s assessment. Likewise, LSA identifies economic weaknesses not only as a governance gap, but as the absence of locally rooted, low-impact income opportunities, something that LandScale cannot differentiate from broader production statistics.

The Baabda results demonstrate that without LSA, the forest’s strongest attributes, its ecological diversity, visual coherence, and cultural embeddedness, would remain invisible, and its weaknesses would be framed only in terms of governance and production capacity. This would misrepresent the actual drivers of sustainability at the site. The importance of LSA lies precisely in its ability to reveal these overlooked dimensions explained by Medeiros et al. (2021) [5] and to treat them as equal components of sustainability.

From an international perspective, this finding matters for more than Baabda. It shows that assessing landscapes solely through global, governance-oriented frameworks risks underestimating the very qualities that sustain community engagement and ecological resilience. LSA provides a replicable model of how sustainability can be assessed holistically in contexts where cultural identity, perceptual value, and social participation are inseparable from ecological performance. In this sense, Baabda Forest demonstrates the necessity of frameworks like LSA, which move beyond the limits of existing international tools and offer a more comprehensive and realistic measure of landscape sustainability.

The comparative analysis between LSA and LandScale revealed critical asymmetries. While Baabda’s ecological integrity is commendable despite a lack of protection, it significantly lags in economic and ecological dimensions according to LSA. This contrast underscores the urgent need for a comprehensive governance strategy in Baabda Forest to elevate its sustainability profile beyond ecological resilience. This was also demonstrated through LandScale, where strong sustainability performance could help attract funding for conservation and sustainable tourism initiatives in the Baabda Forest.

LandScale offered evidence to support decisions on forest management, conservation, and investment. By identifying areas with poorer performance, the assessment would help prioritize interventions, such as focused reforestation or strengthened patrols against illegal activities. The results could be used by stakeholders to advocate for policy changes, potentially pushing for the Baabda Forest to be officially designated as a natural reserve. The multi-stakeholder assessment process could strengthen collaboration and trust among the Antonin Monastery, T.E.R.R.E. Liban, and the Baabda community.

4.1. A Landscape of Strengths, Without Structure

The assessments highlighted that Baabda Forest’s limitations lie not in its character, but in its disconnection from formal planning and management. Its value has endured not through structured support, but through community presence, culture, and informal care. This is a common situation in peri-urban landscape spaces that are deeply rooted in local life yet remain outside institutional attention. They are appreciated but not protected, used but not formally included.

The strongest findings from the assessment came from perceptual and socio-territorial dimensions. The forest offers a coherent and immersive spatial experience for visitors. Its layered vegetation, gentle slopes, and visual continuity create a landscape that feels whole, something increasingly rare in Lebanon’s fragmented urban periphery. The site resonates as a quiet refuge, both physically and symbolically. Yet this perceptual quality is fragile. Without structured guidance, signage, or narrative interpretation, the forest risks becoming visually cluttered or socially invisible. Protecting its scenic and emotional integrity requires not just preservation, but proper management.

From an ecological perspective, Baabda Forest holds significant promise. Its terrain supports a variety of habitats, and the contrast between its pine and oak groves provides structural and climatic diversity. However, this ecological function remains largely unplanned. As urban pressures intensify, ecological stability without intervention becomes increasingly unsustainable. The forest does not need to be redesigned—it needs to be supported.

Socially, Baabda Forest benefits from embedded community ties. Partnerships with NGOs, educational institutions, and other stakeholders have played a vital role in maintaining and activating the site. Local stewardship is already happening, even if not formally recognized.

Yet the governance structure remains informal, limiting broader collaboration and long-term planning. There is no shared platform for decision-making, no framework for coordinated action. To scale its social impact, the forest needs more than volunteers; it needs a structure: a shared governance model that includes civic actors, public institutions, and local authorities working toward a common vision.

The economic dimension remains the forest’s most visible weakness. Baabda currently operates outside any form of revenue generation or income. Unlike other peri-urban green spaces that have leveraged eco-tourism, heritage branding, or nature-based learning to support sustainability, Baabda forest remains economically isolated. This is not due to a lack of potential, but rather a lack of formalization. The forest already draws visitors, educators, and community members—it simply has no mechanism to transform use into value. Sustainability cannot depend on intermittent aid alone; it must be grounded in reciprocity, where the forest gives to the public and the public, in return, sustains the forest.

4.2. Moving from Persistence to Planning: A Pathway Forward

Based on what was previously examined and discussed, the sustainability challenges facing Baabda Forest do not stem from a lack of ecological or social value, but from the absence of a coherent structure to support that value over time. The forest continues to exist thanks to local stewardship, symbolic significance, and spatial coherence.

To ensure that Baabda Forest not only survives but thrives, there is a clear need to shift from informal care to managed planning. This shift requires action across four core areas: ecological resilience, economic activation, governance and participation, and policy integration (Figure 10).

While co-management arrangements offer a promising pathway to reconcile conservation with community needs, their implementation may face several challenges. These include ensuring sustained participation from diverse local stakeholders, clarifying institutional roles and responsibilities between governmental and non-governmental actors, and securing long-term financial resources to support management activities. Additionally, potential conflicts of interest between conservation objectives and local development pressures may require ongoing negotiation and adaptive governance mechanisms.

5. Conclusions

This study applied the Landscape Sustainability Assessment (LSA) and LandScale tools to Baabda Forest—an unprotected private peri-urban landscape of ecological, cultural, and perceptual significance—revealing a fragmented sustainability profile marked by both resilience and vulnerability.

The findings highlight a common paradox found in many peri-urban contexts: landscapes that are functionally valuable and symbolically rich, yet disconnected from formal planning processes, economic systems, and legal protection frameworks. Baabda Forest, being the remaining natural green space in the outskirts of urbanizing Beirut, remains outside the scope of most regulatory and land-use structures, sustained largely by informal stewardship and local community rather than coordinated policy or resource allocation.

Addressing this disconnect requires more than personal and voluntary intervention; it demands a multidimensional framework grounded in ecological restoration, community-driven governance, and strategic economic activation. This research proposes a structured, four-pillar pathway to advance the forest’s sustainability—through ecological zoning, low-impact income generation, participatory co-management, and legal designation. These recommendations are not only specific to Baabda Forest but offer a replicable model for other urban-edge green spaces facing similar conditions of invisibility and underinvestment, and even any type of landscape.

Finally, Baabda Forest illustrates both the potential and the vulnerability of peri-urban landscapes in Lebanon. As cities continue to expand and environmental pressures intensify, the protection and sustainable activation of such sites must become a national priority. This study contributes to this need by providing a data-driven, holistic, and multidimensional approach that bridges landscape assessment with actionable planning. Future research should expand the application of the LSA tool across comparable sites, refine its integration into local policy frameworks, and evaluate the long-term impact of community-based conservation models in peri-urban settings.