Fostering Engineering and Computational Thinking Competencies in Pre-Service Elementary Teachers Through an EDP-Based STEM Digital Making Activity

Abstract

The implementation of K–12 engineering education presents significant challenges for current teachers. To strengthen the instructional readiness of elementary school teachers in Taiwan for engineering education, this study developed a STEM-oriented engineering design activity. It draws on international K–12 engineering education models and incorporates the computational thinking competencies prioritized by Taiwan’s national technology curriculum. The activity involves employing the micro:bit microcontroller to design an educational buzz wire game machine themed on energy education, integrating the engineering design process with knowledge from science, mathematics, and technology. The activity was implemented in an elementary teacher education course through a one-group pretest–posttest quasi-experimental design. The results indicate that participants completed engaging buzz wire game machines that incorporated energy concepts. Significant improvements were observed in participants’ engineering concepts, engineering design self-efficacy, computational thinking, and programming self-efficacy, with a considerable effect size noted in programming self-efficacy (N = 27, Cohen’s d = 1.84, p < 0.05). Most participants expressed highly positive attitudes toward the activity. The findings suggest that the engineering design activity developed in this study shows promising evidence of enhancing professional growth across multiple dimensions of engineering education for pre-service elementary teachers. The study serves as a valuable reference for future curriculum design in teacher education programs.

1. Introduction

A notable recent trend in K–12 educational reform is the extension of engineering education, traditionally implemented at the university level, into elementary and secondary school curricula. A significant catalyst for this shift is the heightened emphasis on engineering within science and technology education in the United States. Additionally, integrated STEM education (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) has received growing global attention, further promoting engineering concepts in K–12 learning environments. As early as 2000, the International Technology Education Association (ITEA) released the Standards for Technological Literacy (STL). These standards emphasize the importance of helping K–12 students understand the relationship between technology and engineering while becoming familiar with the engineering design process (EDP) used by engineers in technology development [1]. Depicting its broader focus on engineering, ITEA was renamed the International Technology and Engineering Educators Association (ITEEA) in 2010 [2]. Furthermore, the release of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) in 2013 marked the first time that engineering concepts were formally integrated into national science curriculum standards in the United States [3]. These standards require students to engage in engineering practices through EDP-based activities to strengthen their scientific understanding and to help them recognize how engineers design and construct systems and solve real-world problems [4]. More recently, in response to the increasing adoption of STEM teaching strategies, ITEEA introduced the Standards for Technological and Engineering Literacy (STEL) in 2020. This framework clarifies the roles of technology and engineering within STEM education, describing their relationships with science and mathematics. It outlines what pre–K–12 students should know and be able to do in the domains of technology and engineering and seeks to align its content with other educational standards, such as the NGSS [5].

The rise of STEM education has not only increased the visibility of engineering education within the K–12 context but has also established a foundational model for its implementation. The current approaches being adopted align with guidelines proposed in frameworks such as the NGSS and the STEL, which emphasize the importance of introducing and engaging with the EDP. In practice, students are typically guided through hands-on engineering design activities while following EDP steps to produce a tangible artifact. Through this process, students are encouraged to integrate their knowledge of mathematics, science, and technology. For instance, high school students are assigned tasks such as designing a chair that can support a specified weight; they apply scientific concepts such as torque, mathematical knowledge such as geometry, and technological expertise such as 3D modeling [6]. Similarly, Zhou et al. engaged middle school students in design-based projects involving marshmallow towers and fan boats; students explored scientific principles such as gravity, force, and pressure, along with engineering concepts like structural stability and mechanical mechanisms [7]. At the elementary school level, students are guided to use the EDP to design windmills or alarm systems, through which they understand and apply scientific concepts related to wind and electricity [8]. As such, contemporary K–12 engineering education is grounded in STEM-based pedagogy, centered around hands-on engineering design practices and anchored in the conceptual understanding of EDP. This emphasizes the integrated application of science, mathematics, and technological knowledge.

However, implementing K–12 engineering education presents significant challenges for teachers. First, the majority of K–12 teachers lack an academic background in engineering and have limited understanding of the nature, processes, and practices of engineering design. Sungur Gül et al. note that one of the main challenges teachers face when designing STEM activities is an insufficient understanding of core engineering concepts [9]. Second, many teachers have never personally experienced the EDP. According to Hynes et al., teachers who lack hands-on experience with engineering design activities tend to feel less confident in implementing engineering education effectively [10]. Third, K–12 engineering education requires teachers to integrate knowledge from multiple disciplines, including mathematics, science, and technology. However, most teachers have only received training in a single subject area. Ring et al. identified a significant challenge in implementing STEM curricula as teachers’ limited ability to integrate content across disciplines [11]. Therefore, scholars indicate that equipping teachers with engineering-focused professional development is essential for the successful implementation of K–12 engineering education [12,13].

In Taiwan, the newly implemented technology education curriculum emphasizes engineering design. At the high school level, students are now expected to understand the EDP and apply it in the context of project-based learning [14]. Consequently, institutions responsible for training secondary school technology teachers have incorporated engineering education and EDP-related courses into pre-service teacher education programs. According to the Ministry of Education regulations, secondary school pre-service technology teachers are required to take at least 26 credits of specialized education courses in technology education [15]. However, engineering-related training remains noticeably lacking in elementary teacher education programs. This is primarily because elementary school teachers in Taiwan are required to teach multiple subjects, unlike their secondary school counterparts, who specialize in a single discipline. According to Taiwan’s elementary teacher preparation program requirements, each pre-service teacher must complete at least 10 credits of specialized education courses related to elementary teaching subjects—such as Chinese language, mathematics, social studies, science, arts, technology, and physical education [15]. Among these, Chinese language and mathematics are mandatory, which means that most teacher preparation programs typically offer only one two-credit elective course related to technology or engineering. Consequently, most elementary teacher education institutions have prioritized the development of content knowledge in core subjects such as language, mathematics, social studies, and science. Furthermore, implementing technology education at the elementary school level in Taiwan is relatively flexible. Past research indicates that elementary school teachers in Taiwan are generally underprepared to teach engineering-related content. Elementary teacher preparation programs should strengthen the inclusion of engineering education while providing necessary training in this area [16]. Therefore, the greatest challenge to advancing engineering education in Taiwan’s K–12 system lies in preparing elementary school teachers. It is essential to deepen pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of the nature of engineering and the engineering design process, provide them with authentic, hands-on experiences in engineering design, and strengthen their capacity to integrate knowledge across multiple disciplines in their instructional practice.

To enhance the preparedness of elementary school teachers in Taiwan for engineering education, this study designed a STEM-oriented engineering design activity specifically for pre-service elementary teacher education programs. The activity offers pre-service elementary teachers authentic experiences in engineering design and interdisciplinary integration. It aims to deepen their conceptual understanding of engineering and enhance their self-efficacy in implementing engineering design. This experience is intended to lay a solid foundation for their future instructional responsibilities in the elementary technology education curriculum. In response to the growing international emphasis on computational thinking (CT), the most recent revisions to Taiwan’s technology education curriculum underscore the development of engineering design competencies while incorporating CT cultivation as a core curricular objective. Taiwan’s Ministry of Education recommends introducing visual programming to students beginning in the third and fourth grades, progressively guiding them to integrate visual programming with microcontroller development boards in the fifth and sixth grades [17]. Thus, the engineering design activity in the present study integrates visual programming and microcontroller applications, with digital making at its core. Participants were required to use MakeCode, a block-based programming platform commonly used in Taiwanese elementary schools, combined with a micro:bit development board to create an educational buzz wire game machine. To foster pre-service elementary teachers’ ability to integrate interdisciplinary STEM knowledge and awareness of sustainable energy, the activity was designed to require participants to incorporate energy-related scientific concepts into their projects. The activity aims not only to strengthen teacher preparedness for engineering education but also to enhance their computational thinking and programming self-efficacy, supporting future teaching of the elementary technology curriculum.

This study conducted an exploratory intervention targeting pre-service elementary teachers to examine the effectiveness of the proposed activity. The specific research questions are as follows:

• Are pre-service elementary teachers able to complete the engineering design task developed in this study?
• What is the impact of the engineering design activity on pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of engineering concepts and their self-efficacy in engineering design?
• What is the effect of the engineering design activity on pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of computational thinking and their programming self-efficacy?
• How do pre-service elementary teachers perceive their participation in the engineering design activity developed in this study?

2. Literature Review

2.1. Engineering Education

Several essential documents related to K–12 engineering education have previously defined the term “engineering.” For instance, in its STL document, the ITEA defines engineering as the application of scientific and mathematical principles to the design of products and systems, with the goal of addressing technology-related challenges [1]. The National Academy of Engineering (NAE) defines engineering as “the process of designing the human-made world” [18]. Additionally, the National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB), in the Technology and Engineering Literacy Framework for the 2018 National Assessment of Educational Progress, defines engineering as “a systematic and often iterative approach to designing objects, processes, and systems to meet human needs and wants” [19]. Taken together, these definitions consistently highlight design as the core of engineering, thereby emphasizing the importance of design-oriented pedagogical approaches in the context of engineering education.

However, past research indicates that students hold various misconceptions regarding the concept of engineering. Montfort et al. conducted a qualitative interview study with 27 high school students and found that many equated engineering with tasks such as “fixing cars, bridges, and airplanes,” reflecting a predominantly operational view [20]. Capobianco et al. carried out a quantitative descriptive study using the Draw-an-Engineer Test (DAET) with 396 elementary students (Grades 1–5) and reported that many depicted engineers as train drivers, car mechanics, or construction workers, revealing misconceptions about engineers’ work [21]. Irmak and Öztürk used a single-group pretest–posttest design with 18 pre-service science teachers, involving three traditional engineering design activities (street lighting, a wave machine, and a bridge). Their results showed that many participants initially viewed engineering merely as the application of science, but this misconception became less frequent after the activities, although no statistical tests were conducted [22].

Numerous studies in recent years have proposed the suitability of EDPs for K–12 engineering design activities. While there is ongoing debate regarding the specific steps that an EDP should include, scholars generally agree that it is a systematic, iterative process that is inherently non-linear. The National Assessment Governing Board suggests that the EDP consists of the following steps: stating the challenge, generating ideas, choosing the best solution, developing and testing models and prototypes, and redesigning [23]. The NGSS divides the EDP into three stages: defining and delimiting engineering problems, designing solutions to engineering problems, and optimizing the design solution [4]. Notably, Massachusetts was the first state in the United States to formally integrate engineering education into its K–12 curriculum standards. In collaboration with the Massachusetts Department of Education, Hynes et al. developed an EDP specifically designed for K–12 education, comprising eight non-linear and iterative steps: identify the problem, research the problem, develop possible solutions, select the best solution, construct a prototype, test and evaluate the prototype, communicate the results, redesign, and finalize the design [24]. The present study adopted the eight-step EDP as the foundational framework for designing engineering design activities tailored for pre-service elementary teachers.

Given that understanding EDPs is a core component of K–12 engineering education, current K–12 engineering initiatives not only emphasize enhancing students’ understanding of engineering concepts through design-based activities but also aim to familiarize students with the engineering design process and improve their self-efficacy in applying EDPs. For instance, Zhou et al. conducted a single-group pretest–posttest study with 24 middle school students who engaged in toy design activities such as constructing a trebuchet. Using an engineering design self-efficacy scale, they reported significant improvements in students’ pre- and post-test scores, indicating that hands-on design activities enhanced students’ confidence in applying the EDP [7]. Gale et al. employed a case study approach in a two-year longitudinal investigation that followed six middle school students. Data were collected primarily through interviews and analyses of student work. The course required students to complete a series of extended engineering design projects, such as creating a prototype of a cellphone holder using 3D modeling software. The findings showed that over time the students developed a more sophisticated understanding of the engineering design process and exhibited notable gains in engineering design self-efficacy [25].

Thus, prior research has supported the notion that engineering design activities can enhance pre-service elementary teachers’ engineering concepts and engineering design self-efficacy. However, some of these studies lacked rigorous quantitative statistical analyses or involved very small samples. Moreover, few studies have centered on digital making–based engineering design activities while simultaneously examining changes in both pre-service elementary teachers’ engineering concepts and engineering design self-efficacy, highlighting the need for further research in this area.

2.2. Programming Education

Past programming education primarily concentrated on secondary and tertiary levels of education [26]. However, driven by global educational reform in recent years, programming has increasingly been integrated into elementary education systems. It has become a mandatory component of national curricula in several advanced countries. Nations such as Australia, the United Kingdom, Finland, France, New Zealand, and South Korea have formally implemented programming-related instruction at the elementary school level [27]. This shift is closely tied to the growing prominence of computational thinking in the field of education. Wing advocated that CT should be regarded as a fundamental literacy alongside reading, writing, and arithmetic [28]. This perspective has prompted many advanced countries to incorporate CT into their K–12 national curricula, treating it as a key instructional objective [29]. Given that programming is widely recognized as one of the most effective approaches to fostering CT [30], integrating programming instruction at the elementary level has increasingly become a global trend in education.

An increasing number of studies have reported that programming instruction at the elementary school level is incorporating tools such as Scratch, which are built upon block-based interfaces [31,32,33]. Unlike traditional text-based programming languages, Scratch utilizes a graphical, block-based command system that reduces students’ cognitive load and frustration related to syntax learning; it enables them to concentrate more fully on understanding programming logic and structure [34]. Brennan and Resnick indicate that Scratch encompasses seven core concepts of CT, including sequences, loops, events, parallelism, conditionals, operators, and data [35]. Past research confirms that Scratch not only lowers the barrier to entry associated with programming syntax but also effectively supports the development of students’ abilities in CT concepts such as sequences, loops, and events [36]. With the growing prevalence of programming education at the elementary level, teacher preparation programs are increasingly incorporating related coursework into pre-service elementary teacher training. Research also indicates that pre-service elementary teachers demonstrate significant improvement in CT concepts such as sequencing and conditionals after engaging in Scratch-based programming learning [37,38].

In addition to the widespread use of Scratch for graphical programming instruction at the elementary school level, an increasingly recognized strategy involves integrating the BBC micro:bit microcontroller as a medium for programming education and computational thinking instruction [39]. The micro:bit is a compact, programmable microcontroller equipped with built-in modules for Bluetooth, light, acceleration, magnetism, and temperature sensing. Since 2016, the United Kingdom incorporated the micro:bit into elementary programming curricula [40]. Since the micro:bit supports block-based programming through Microsoft MakeCode, students can control its built-in sensors via code and connect external electronic components (e.g., servo motors) for extended applications. This makes it particularly suitable for developing interactive, hands-on devices, such as pedometers and other interactive systems [41]. Therefore, the micro:bit can be considered a pedagogical tool with strong potential for programming instruction and digital making. This tool makes the process of learning to program more engaging and provides students with valuable opportunities for hands-on construction and creative problem-solving [42]. Based on these characteristics, the micro:bit is highly suitable for supporting engineering design education at the elementary school level, as it essentially transforms the tangible artifacts produced in traditional engineering activities into micro:bit-based creations. Moreover, its application within engineering education, with the EDP serving as a scaffold to guide students’ digital making, may enable iterative cycles of testing and debugging that could further strengthen their computational thinking concepts and programming self-efficacy.

Although numerous studies have demonstrated that the use of the micro:bit can enhance students’ computational thinking (CT) concepts, for example, Kastner-Hauler et al. employed a single-group pretest–posttest design with 41 primary school students who used the micro:bit’s LED display to create animations or a “rock–paper–scissors” game and found significant improvements in CT [43], existing research has paid relatively little attention to applying the micro:bit in engineering education contexts. In particular, few studies have simultaneously examined the effects of micro:bit-based digital making activities on students’ computational thinking, programming self-efficacy, engineering concepts, and engineering design self-efficacy. Given that Taiwan’s new technology curriculum emphasizes both computational thinking and engineering design, engaging pre-service elementary teachers in micro:bit-based engineering design activities may represent a promising direction for exploration.

3. Methods

To evaluate the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of the engineering design activity developed in this study, the activity was implemented in a pre-service teacher education course for prospective elementary school teachers. A one-group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design was employed to assess its impact. The same group of participants was evaluated before and after the intervention to determine whether the activity effectively enhanced their understanding of engineering concepts, engineering design self-efficacy, computational thinking concepts, and programming self-efficacy. In addition, participants’ experiences and perceptions were examined to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the feasibility and educational potential of the proposed activity. The following sections describe the content of the engineering design activity developed in this study, the participants, the research procedure, and the instruments employed.

3.1. The Engineering Design Activity

To enhance the preparedness of pre-service elementary school teachers in Taiwan for engineering education, this study designed and developed an engineering design activity. Centered on hands-on design practice, the activity was guided by the NGSS and STEL recommendations; it emphasizes the understanding and application of the EDP as well as the integration of interdisciplinary knowledge from science, mathematics, and technology. Because using the micro:bit to create a buzz wire game is a straightforward and widely adopted application, with numerous reference materials available on websites (e.g., https://projects.raspberrypi.org/en/projects/frustration, accessed on 16 August 2025) and on YouTube, this study selected the buzz wire game as the theme of the engineering design activity. In this activity, pre-service elementary school teachers were organized into design teams to collaboratively develop an engaging instructional product: an educational buzz wire game machine. The design task included several key requirements: the game machine should allow users to input a player ID before the game begins; during gameplay, the player is required to manipulate a conductive material to navigate through a conductive maze or path. If the material comes into contact with the conductive boundary, a buzzer should be triggered to emit a sound. Upon completing the maze, the game should automatically upload the user’s completion time to a cloud-based platform. Product design was required to incorporate energy education, enabling elementary school students to learn and understand energy concepts during gameplay.

To evaluate the feasibility and educational effectiveness of this activity, the engineering design task was implemented in a two-credit technology-related teacher education course at a university in Taiwan, designed for pre-service elementary school teachers. To ensure that participants acquired fundamental skills in using microcontroller development boards, the first eight weeks of the course were dedicated to basic digital making training. Training included using the MakeCode visual programming language to operate the micro:bit board, with lessons on controlling built-in components such as LEDs, buzzers, and buttons, as well as connecting external modules, including LCD displays, servo motors, buttons, and Wi-Fi modules. Participants were also taught how to transmit data collected by the micro:bit to the ThingSpeak cloud database, enabling them to engage in basic Internet of Things (IoT) applications.

After completing the basic training, the course progressed into the engineering design implementation phase during the final eight weeks. In addition to group formation and task briefing, the entire activity was structured around the EDP as outlined by Hynes et al. [24], guiding students step-by-step through the engineering design process. For example, during the “research the problem” stage, students were guided to collect information related to educational buzz wire game machines. In the “develop possible solutions” stage, creative thinking and brainstorming techniques were introduced. During the “select the best solution” stage, students were instructed to create preliminary design sketches. In the “construct a prototype” stage, they were required to begin with a low-fidelity prototype. Notably, in the “communicate the results” stage, students were asked to visit a local elementary school to present their projects and invite elementary students to test the product and provide feedback.

To support the design and construction process, the course provided students with micro:bit boards and related electronic components, including expansion boards, LCD1602 displays, servo motors, external buttons, Wi-Fi modules, conductive copper tape, and wires. However, students were also required to supply their own materials such as cardboard boxes and metal wire to complete the final construction of the educational buzz wire game machine.

3.2. Participants

Participants were recruited through purposive sampling, as the study was conducted with pre-service elementary teachers enrolled in the elective course “Introduction to Technology” within the elementary teacher preparation program. The entire class (N = 30) was invited to participate in the instructional evaluation. Inclusion criteria were enrollment in this course, and no additional exclusion criteria were applied. Attrition occurred because 3 participants did not complete the required pre- and post-tests, resulting in a final sample of 27 participants. The study participants included 12 male and 15 female students. All participants were senior undergraduate (fourth-year) or master’s program students. The pre-activity survey indicated that 21 students had prior experience with either visual or text-based programming languages, while 6 students had no programming experience. Only 3 students had previously used a micro:bit development board. The demographic information of the participants is presented in

Table 1. Demographic Information of the Participants.

	Gender		Programming Experience		Micro:Bit Experience		Year of Study
	Male	Female	Yes	No	Yes	No	Fourth Year Undergraduate	Master’s Program
Number of Participants	12	15	21	6	3	24	13	14

. During the study’s engineering design activity, participants formed groups based on their preferences, resulting in seven teams with three to four members each.

3.3. Research Procedure

This study was conducted in conjunction with a teacher education course, spanning 18 weeks. The course was scheduled for two class periods per week, with each period lasting 50 min. In the first week, a pre-test was administered to collect baseline data on participants’ prior knowledge and self-efficacy. The pre-test included an engineering concepts test, an engineering design self-efficacy scale, a computational thinking concepts test, and a programming self-efficacy scale. Weeks 2–9 were dedicated to digital making skills training: participants were instructed on how to operate the micro:bit controller, use the MakeCode visual programming platform, and integrate external electronic modules for hands-on applications. Weeks 10–17 comprised the engineering design implementation phase: participants worked collaboratively in groups following the EDP proposed by Hynes et al. [24] to design and construct an educational buzz wire game machine. During Week 18, a post-test was administered using the same instruments as the pre-test. The participation perception scale was administered to collect data on participants’ learning experiences and perceptions of the activity.

3.4. Research Instruments

3.4.1. Engineering Concepts Test

To investigate whether participation in a digital making–oriented engineering design activity could enhance pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of engineering concepts, this study adapted the “What is Engineering?” test developed by Cunningham et al. [44] as the instrument for assessing engineering concept understanding in the pre-test and post-test. The original test consisted of 16 pictorial items, which was expanded to 20 items in the present study. The test featured 20 images depicting work-related scenarios, each accompanied by a corresponding job description. The items covered a range of occupational activities, such as repairing cars, installing wiring, designing clean water systems, and writing computer programs. In this study, four new items were added, including repairing mobile phones, plumbing installation, brainstorming, and modifying computer programs. All items were translated into Chinese. Participants were asked to determine whether each depicted occupation represented a task that an engineer might perform, in order to assess their understanding of the core concept of engineering. Each correct response was awarded 5 points, with a maximum possible score of 100. The revised version was reviewed by a technology education expert to ensure content validity, and the internal consistency reliability of the revised version, measured by KR-20, was 0.84 in this study.

3.4.2. Engineering Design Self-Efficacy Scale

To examine whether pre-service elementary teachers’ engineering design self-efficacy improved after participating in the digital making–oriented engineering design activity, this study adapted and modified the engineering design self-efficacy scale developed by Carberry et al. [45] as the assessment tool. The instrument was constructed based on the eight steps of the engineering design process proposed by Hynes et al. [24], which aligns with the instructional framework adopted in this study. The original instrument employed a 100-point rating scale (ranging from 0 to 100) and comprised four dimensions: confidence, motivation, expectation of success, and anxiety. In this study, only three of the original four dimensions—confidence, motivation, and expectation of success—were selected, the rating scale was modified from a 100-point to a 10-point Likert scale (ranging from 0 to 10), and all items were translated into Chinese. The scale was designed to assess participants’ perceived self-efficacy in performing each step of the engineering design process. Specifically, each dimension contained nine items, consisting of one general item and eight items corresponding to the eight steps of the engineering design process, resulting in a total of 27 items. For example, a general item from the confidence dimension was: “Rate your confidence in carrying out an engineering design project” (0–10 scale). An item targeting a specific step from the confidence dimension was: “Rate your confidence in identifying the problem” (0–10 scale). The revised scale was reviewed by a technology education expert to ensure content validity. Statistical analyses conducted in this study indicated that the averaged inter-item correlations for the subscales of confidence, motivation, and expectation of success were 0.72 (range = 0.43–0.95), 0.79 (range = 0.61–0.96), and 0.80 (range = 0.45–0.98), respectively. The corrected item-total correlations for these subscales were 0.83 (range = 0.68–0.94), 0.88 (range = 0.77–0.97), and 0.88 (range = 0.65–0.96), respectively. In addition, the overall Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient was 0.98, with the subscales of confidence, motivation, and expectation of success demonstrating coefficients of 0.96, 0.97, and 0.97, respectively.

3.4.3. Computational Thinking Concepts Test

To examine the effectiveness of the engineering design activity developed in this study on enhancing pre-service elementary teachers’ CT abilities, the computational thinking concepts test developed by Tsai [46] was used as the pre-test and post-test instrument. This test was based on MakeCode and included 10 multiple-choice questions designed to assess participants’ understanding and application of programming and CT concepts. Items 1–7 corresponded to the seven core CT concepts proposed by Brennan and Resnick [35], including sequences, loops, events, parallelism, conditionals, operators, and data. Items 8–10 integrated multiple CT concepts within a single question to evaluate students’ ability to apply CT comprehensively. For example, one item targeting the concept of events presented a MakeCode program involving event handling, and participants were asked to select the correct answer. Each item was worth 10 points, with a total score of 100. Reliability analysis in this study revealed that the KR-20 coefficient for the test was 0.68, with an average item difficulty of 0.61 and an average discrimination index of 0.41.

3.4.4. Programming Self-Efficacy Scale

To examine whether pre-service elementary teachers’ programming self-efficacy improved after participating in the digital making–oriented engineering design activity, this study adopted the computer programming self-efficacy scale developed by Tsai et al. [47] as the pre-test and post-test instrument. The scale consisted of 16 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not like me at all) to 6 (very much like me). The items were categorized into five subdimensions based on their content: logical thinking, algorithm design, debugging, control structures, and collaboration. Each subdimension included three to four corresponding items. Example items include: from the logical thinking subscale, “I can understand a conditional expression such as ‘if … else …’”; from the algorithm design subscale, “I can make use of programming to solve a problem”; from the debugging subscale, “I can fix an error while testing a program”; from the control structures subscale, “I can run and test a program in a program editor”; and from the collaboration subscale, “I can work with others while writing a program.” The original instrument was translated into Chinese and reviewed by a technology education expert to ensure content validity. According to Tsai et al. [47], the Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for the five subscales ranged from 0.84 to 0.96, and the overall reliability of the scale was 0.96. In this study, the translated version demonstrated the averaged inter-item correlations for the subscales of logical thinking, algorithm design, debugging, control structures, and collaboration, which were 0.89 (range = 0.83–0.93), 0.76 (range = 0.68–0.86), 0.75 (range = 0.66–0.91), 0.72 (range = 0.60–0.87), and 0.56 (range = 0.49–0.64), respectively. The corrected item-total correlations for these subscales were 0.92 (range = 0.89–0.96), 0.81 (range = 0.73–0.89), 0.80 (range = 0.69–0.87), 0.79 (range = 0.67–0.89), and 0.63 (range = 0.55–0.68), respectively. In addition, the overall Cronbach’s α reliability coefficient was 0.96, and the reliability coefficients for the logical thinking, algorithm design, debugging, control structures, and collaboration subscales were 0.97, 0.89, 0.90, 0.89, and 0.78, respectively.

3.4.5. Participation Perception Scale

To explore pre-service elementary teachers’ learning experiences and perceptions after participating in the digital making-oriented engineering design activity, this study developed a 14-item participation perception scale based on Tsai [46]. The instrument employed a 5-point Likert scale and was designed to assess participants’ subjective perceptions of the activity. Example items include: “The engineering design activity helped me learn knowledge related to the micro:bit.” A complete list of items is presented in Table 5. One open-ended question was included at the end of the scale to allow participants to share personal reflections and suggestions, supplementing the quantitative data. Reliability analysis yielded a Cronbach’s α of 0.86.

4. Results

4.1. Engineering Design Outcomes

After completing the engineering design activity through collaborative group work, all participating pre-service elementary teachers developed functional educational buzz wire game machines. Each group’s final product fulfilled the design task requirements: enabling players to input their user ID via button press before the game began and to upload the user ID along with the completion time or score to the ThingSpeak cloud platform upon finishing the game. All final products attempted to incorporate concepts related to energy learning and demonstrated distinctive design creativity and functional features.

The game machine designed by Group 1 followed the basic structure of a traditional buzz wire game. Its distinguishing feature was the inclusion of icons representing different types of energy, such as solar panels or petroleum, placed at various corners along the game path. When the game began, the system randomly selected a game mode (Modes 1 or 2). In Mode 1, if players touched icons related to renewable energy sources during gameplay, a time bonus was applied, reducing the total time spent to complete the game. The game designed by Group 2 incorporated racing elements. Players were required to operate a control lever to move a small vehicle left or right, avoiding an electrified path that changed dynamically. Along the game route, two stop points were embedded, during which players were presented with two true-or-false questions related to energy knowledge. Players responded using buttons; correct answers resulted in a reduction in the total game time. Group 3 completed a traditional version of the educational buzz wire game machine without incorporating any energy knowledge challenges. However, upon completing the game, participants were prompted to reflect on how the instability of human-powered energy output resembles the game’s curved and difficult-to-control path. The game designed by Group 4 included a multiple-choice question before the gameplay began: “Which of the following is a renewable energy source?” Players were required to respond using buttons; those who answered correctly received bonus points. The game proceeded in the style of a traditional buzz wire game. Building on the traditional buzz wire game, Group 5 integrated a series of true-or-false questions related to energy at each junction along the game path. If a player selected the correct answer, they were directed to the correct path; an incorrect answer led them to a dead end. This design aims to enhance players’ understanding of energy-related knowledge through interactive decision-making during gameplay. In Group 6’s design, a true-or-false question related to energy knowledge was presented after the player completed the entire buzz wire course. If a player answered incorrectly, additional seconds were added to the total game time as a penalty. The game developed by Group 7 included three stages focused on energy-related knowledge. In the first and third stages, players were required to use a conductive wand to select either a “true” or “false” conductive point. Only those who selected the correct answer were allowed to proceed; an incorrect answer resulted in the termination of the game. The second stage incorporated a servo motor: when a player touched the conductive point corresponding to the correct answer, a gate opened to allow the player to pass and continue the game. Figure 1 shows the works created by Groups 1 and 4 that were tested by elementary school students.

4.2. Analysis Results of the Engineering Concepts Test

Analyzing the pre- and post-test scores on the engineering concepts test shows that pre-service elementary teachers had an average pre-test score of 65.19 (N = 27, SD = 14.71) and a post-test average of 80.00 (N = 27, SD = 16.35) after participating in the engineering design activity. Shapiro–Wilk tests indicated no significant deviation from normality. A paired-sample t-test found a significant difference between the two tests, t(26) = 4.90, p = 0.000, with a large effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.94, 95% CI [0.46, 1.42], post hoc power ≈ 98%). The mean difference between pre- and post-test scores was 14.81 (95% CI [8.60, 21.03]). The results indicate that the post-test scores were significantly higher than the pre-test scores. These findings suggest that participation in this study’s semester-long engineering design activity may have contributed to the improvement of pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of engineering concepts.

A closer analysis of participants’ response patterns revealed that many pre-service teachers tended to misidentify technical or maintenance-related tasks as responsibilities of engineers during the pretest phase. For example, a high proportion of participants incorrectly categorized the following tasks as engineering work: driving machines (63%), installing wiring (85%), repairing cars (67%), and installing utilities (70%). However, the proportion of misclassifications decreased significantly after the semester-long engineering design activity: driving machines (19%), installing wiring (48%), repairing cars (33%), and installing utilities (38%). These findings suggest that participants’ understanding of engineering roles shifted toward a clearer focus on design and innovation, reflecting an improved grasp of the core engineering concepts.

4.3. Analysis Results of the Engineering Design Self-Efficacy Scale

This study conducted a pre- and post-test comparison of pre-service elementary teachers’ engineering design self-efficacy. The scale scores are presented in

Table 2. Engineering Design Self-Efficacy Scores.

	Average	Confidence	Motivation	Expectation of Success
Pretest	5.50	5.75	5.48	5.24
Posttest	6.41	6.70	6.22	6.31
t	3.12 *	2.97 *	2.31 *	3.27 *
Adjusted p (Holm–Bonferroni)		0.012	0.029	0.009
Cohen’s d	0.60	0.57	0.44	0.63

* p < 0.05.

. Results indicate that participants had an average pre-test score of 5.49 (N = 27, SD = 2.06), which increased to 6.41 (N = 27, SD = 2.15) after completing the engineering design activity. A Shapiro–Wilk test indicated no significant deviation from normality. A paired-sample t-test revealed a significant difference between the two measurements, t(26) = 3.12, p = 0.004, with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.60, 95% CI [0.25, 0.95], post hoc power ≈ 80%). The mean difference between pre- and post-test scores was 0.92 (95% CI [0.31, 1.52]). These findings suggest that the semester-long engineering design activity developed in this study may have contributed to enhancing pre-service elementary teachers’ engineering design self-efficacy.

Additional analyses of responses across scale subdimensions (Table 2) revealed significant improvements in confidence, motivation, and the expectation of success. The findings suggest that participating in the engineering design activity helped strengthen participants’ confidence in implementing engineering design tasks, their willingness to engage, and expectations for success. However, given that the overall effect size was only moderate, there remains room for further improvement in participants’ engineering design self-efficacy. Notably, the effect size for the motivation subdimension was relatively small. This finding indicates that the activity may require additional refinement to stimulate pre-service elementary teachers’ intrinsic motivation to participate in engineering design.

4.4. Analysis Results of the Computational Thinking Concepts Test

This study analyzed the pre- and post-test scores of pre-service elementary teachers on the computational thinking concepts test. The results are presented in

Table 3. Computational Thinking Concepts Test Scores.

	Average	Sequences	Events	Parallelism	Conditionals	Data	Operators	Loops	Multiconcept
Pretest	42.96	5.56	9.63	5.56	7.41	1.11	2.22	3.33	8.15
Posttest	61.48	7.78	10.00	9.26	8.89	3.70	4.07	4.81	12.96
t	3.58 *	1.80	1.00	3.91 *	1.69	2.56	1.73	1.44	1.87
Adjusted p (Holm–Bonferroni)		0.438	0.438	0.008	0.438	0.119	0.438	0.438	0.438
Cohen’s d	0.69	0.35	0.19	0.75	0.32	0.49	0.33	0.28	0.36

* p < 0.05.

. Before participating in the course, the average score was 42.96 (N = 27, SD = 22.16), which increased to 61.48 (N = 27, SD = 22.16) after the course. A Shapiro–Wilk test indicated no significant deviation from normality. A paired-sample t-test revealed a significant difference between the two measurements, t(26) = 3.58, p = 0.001, with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.69, 95% CI [0.30, 1.08], post hoc power ≈ 91%). The mean difference between pre- and post-test scores was 18.52 (95% CI [7.90, 29.14]). These findings suggest that participating in the semester-long digital making-oriented engineering design course may have contributed to improving participants’ computational thinking concepts.

Further analysis of score changes across CT dimensions (Table 3) revealed that participants demonstrated significant improvement in the concepts of parallelism. In contrast, score changes in other CT concepts did not reach statistical significance. Given that the maximum score for each individual CT dimension was 10 points and 30 points for the comprehensive concept dimension, an examination of the pre- and post-test scores indicated that participants’ performance in the dimensions of data, operators, loops, and the multi-concept was suboptimal. The findings suggest that although the course may have contributed to enhancing certain aspects of CT, there remains room for improvement in the curriculum, particularly in supporting the balanced development of CT dimensions.

4.5. Analysis Results of the Programming Self-Efficacy Scale

This study analyzed the responses of pre-service elementary teachers on the programming self-efficacy scale (

Table 4. Programming Self-Efficacy Scale Scores.

	Average	Control Structures	Logical Thinking	Algorithm Design	Debugging	Collaboration
Pretest	2.54	2.84	2.87	1.80	2.56	2.53
Posttest	4.21	4.91	4.35	3.31	4.05	4.38
t	9.55 *	7.42 *	6.94 *	7.51 *	5.96 *	7.47 *
Adjusted p (Holm–Bonferroni)		0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Cohen’s d	1.84	1.43	1.34	1.44	1.15	1.44

* p < 0.05.

). The results indicate that the average pre-test score before implementing the engineering design activity was 2.54 (N = 27, SD = 1.14), reflecting a relatively low level of programming self-efficacy. After the intervention, the average post-test score increased to 4.21 (N = 27, SD = 1.03). A Shapiro–Wilk test indicated no significant deviation from normality. A paired-sample t-test revealed a significant difference between the pre- and post-test scores, t(26) = 9.55, p = 0.000, with a considerable effect size (Cohen’s d = 1.84, 95% CI [1.08, 2.60], post hoc power ≈ 100%). The mean difference between pre- and post-test scores was 1.67 (95% CI [1.31, 2.03]). These findings suggest that the semester-long engineering design activity designed in this study may have contributed to enhancing pre-service elementary teachers’ programming self-efficacy.

Further analysis of participants’ responses across scale subdimensions (Table 4) indicates significant improvements in all areas, including logical thinking, algorithm design, debugging, control structures, and collaboration. The effect sizes for all subdimensions met the threshold for a significant effect. This finding indicates that the course effectively enhanced participants’ confidence and self-efficacy across multiple programming aspects. Notably, however, although the algorithm design subdimension (i.e., the ability to solve problems using programming algorithms) showed significant improvement, its post-test score remained comparatively lower than those of the other subdimensions. This finding suggests that participants’ self-efficacy in this area has room for further development. Therefore, future curriculum design should place greater emphasis on programming logic and algorithmic thinking to strengthen pre-service elementary teachers’ confidence and competence in applying programming to solve practical problems.

4.6. Analysis Results of the Participation Perception Scale

This study analyzed participants’ responses to the participation perception scale. The results are presented in

Table 5. Participation Perception Scale Scores.

Item	Content	Average Score
1	I think that this engineering design activity was interesting.	4.22
2	I devoted considerable effort to this engineering design activity.	4.33
3	This engineering design activity helped me learn about micro:bit.	4.48
4	The engineering design activity helped me develop skills in MakeCode programming.	4.44
5	The engineering design activity helped me understand how to use external electronic modules with micro:bit.	4.37
6	The engineering design activity helped me learn how to control micro:bit using MakeCode programs.	4.37
7	The engineering design activity helped me learn about the Internet of Things.	4.11
8	The engineering design activity helped me understand how to use the ThingSpeak platform to store IoT data.	4.30
9	The engineering design activity helped me learn engineering concepts.	4.37
10	The engineering design activity helped me understand the steps of the engineering design process.	4.26
11	I think that presenting our design project at an elementary school was a meaningful experience.	4.59
12	I believe that collecting feedback from elementary students helped us improve our design.	4.37
13	I felt a sense of accomplishment when I saw the educational buzz wire game machine we had designed.	4.26
14	If given another opportunity, I would like to create even better technology-based projects in the future.	4.04
	Average score	4.32

. The overall average score on the scale was 4.32; the mean score for all individual items exceeded 4. On a 5-point Likert scale, this indicates a generally positive tendency, suggesting that most participants held favorable perceptions of their learning experiences in the engineering design activity. In other words, participants expressed high levels of satisfaction with what they had learned—e.g., programming, microcontroller applications, electronic module integration, and the engineering design process—and reported strong engagement and a sense of accomplishment in completing their final products. Among all items, the highest average score was associated with the statement regarding “participating in the final presentation activity and testing the product in an elementary school.” This result indicates that most participants found it meaningful and satisfying to apply their engineering design products in an authentic elementary school setting and to observe students’ interactions with the devices.

Additionally, responses to the open-ended question at the end of the scale support the quantitative findings. Most participants provided positive feedback, indicating that the engineering design activity developed in this study was inspiring and beneficial to their learning experience. Some representative excerpts from participants’ open-ended responses include the following: “It was my first time learning about engineering design, and I truly found it rewarding. I hope to have the opportunity to bring what I’ve learned into elementary school classrooms in the future.” “Since our final product was meant to be tested by students, I found the experience very meaningful. It gave us a valuable opportunity to connect with real students in the field.” “This course showed me that programming is not limited to executing code on a computer—it can also be applied to real-life contexts. It made me realize how fun and engaging programming can be.” “We spent a significant amount of extra time working on our project. Seeing it come together step by step and finally operate successfully was a deeply moving experience.” “At first, I honestly considered withdrawing from the course. However, with encouragement from classmates and continuous learning, I gradually gained confidence. The experience of presenting our work at the elementary school brought me great joy and made me proud of our team’s collaboration.” “All I can say is that this has been the most enjoyable course I’ve ever taken. I’m actually a bit reluctant for it to end.”

Although most feedback was positive, some participants offered suggestions for improvement, primarily concerning limited production time and technical issues related to material usage. For instance, participants commented: “I hope the instructor can give us more class periods for making the project,” “The conductive tape only conducts on one side, making it difficult to attach vertically and often resulting in poor connections,” and “The copper foil kept disconnecting, and the poor conductivity was really frustrating.” Based on this feedback, it is recommended that future course iterations allocate additional time for fabrication while providing more suitable materials, e.g., double-sided conductive copper tape, to enhance the overall learning quality and support smoother production experiences.

5. Discussion

This study provides preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of the STEM-oriented engineering design activity developed for pre-service elementary teacher education programs. The findings suggest that, after receiving foundational training and structured guidance on the engineering design process, pre-service elementary teachers completed the engineering design tasks assigned in this study. Through collaborative efforts, each group successfully designed and constructed an educational buzz wire game machine that incorporated IoT functionalities and integrated energy-related learning concepts. This outcome indicates that the proposed engineering design task may be appropriately challenging and feasible for pre-service elementary teachers. It is particularly noteworthy that, despite most participants having no prior experience with micro:bit, they were able to successfully create functional digital artifacts. This finding provides further evidence that pre-service elementary teachers without a background in physical programming can complete basic digital making projects using micro:bit and MakeCode with adequate guidance and learning support. This finding aligns with Tsai [46], who indicates that pre-service teachers without prior programming experience can complete simple IoT-based projects when provided with suitable learning opportunities and collaborative experiences. The results also support the pedagogical value of incorporating the EDP, outlined by Hynes et al. [24], into teacher education contexts. The structured EDP approach not only facilitated the completion of digital making tasks but also contributed to participants’ growing confidence and sense of accomplishment. Participant feedback indicates that applying their projects in authentic classroom contexts while engaging with students was perceived as a highly valuable and impactful aspect of their learning journey.

This study also found that engaging in digital making-based engineering design activities, guided by the EDP, appeared to support pre-service elementary teachers in developing a stronger understanding of core engineering concepts. The activities potentially helped them become more familiar with the stages and procedures of engineering design, thereby contributing to greater confidence and capability in applying the EDP. The engineering concept test results revealed patterns consistent with Montfort et al. [20] and Capobianco et al. [21]. At the beginning of the activity, many pre-service elementary teachers similarly held misconceptions, identifying tasks such as repairing cars or operating machines as representative of engineers’ work. However, after completing the full engineering design activity, the proportion of such misconceptions significantly decreased, indicating a marked improvement in participants’ understanding of the nature of engineering. This result echoes the findings of Hammack et al. [48], who suggest that engineering design activities centered on the EDP can effectively enhance students’ understanding of engineering concepts. Moreover, the post-test scores of pre-service elementary teachers on the engineering design self-efficacy scale were significantly higher than their pre-test scores. This finding is consistent with Zhou et al. [7], Gale et al. [25], and Moonga et al. [49]; this suggests that, regardless of the specific nature of the design activity, students’ engineering design self-efficacy has the potential to be enhanced when they actively engage in and follow EDPs. However, this study found that the effect size for improvements in engineering design self-efficacy was only moderate. This result suggests that for pre-service elementary teachers with no prior experience in digital making or engineering design, a one-time learning experience may be insufficient to produce comprehensive and lasting gains in self-efficacy. This finding highlights the need for future curriculum designs to incorporate more sustained or multi-phase engineering design learning experiences to strengthen participants’ instructional competence and professional confidence.

The findings also indicate that engaging in microcontroller-based training and the hands-on process of designing digital artifacts appeared to enhance pre-service elementary teachers’ understanding of CT concepts, potentially strengthening their confidence and self-efficacy in programming. In terms of computational thinking, the participants in this study demonstrated significant improvement in test scores, which is consistent with findings from past studies [43,46,50] that have highlighted the micro:bit’s potential as a tool for supporting students, pre-service teachers, and in-service teachers in developing CT. The present study reinforces the instructional value of using microcontroller boards in programming education. However, the overall improvement in computational thinking observed in this study was only moderate. Post-test performance on more complex dimensions—such as variables, operations, and loops—was limited. Recent research [51,52] has also reported that novice learners often struggle with more complex computational thinking concepts, including loops, variables, and operators. This finding is also consistent with Tsai [46], which suggests that a single semester of digital making activities may be insufficient to comprehensively enhance pre-service teachers’ computational thinking skills. The internalization of higher-order computational concepts likely requires more extended and in-depth learning experiences, as well as more challenging project-based tasks. Regarding programming self-efficacy, this study revealed a significant improvement with a large effect size, which is consistent with Smit et al. [53], who reported that micro:bit-based instructional activities were associated with gains in learners’ programming self-efficacy. The integration of the micro:bit into engineering design activities, with the EDP serving as a scaffold, may contribute to enhancing pre-service elementary teachers’ programming confidence and self-efficacy. This finding suggests that while a single activity may be insufficient for developing complex computational thinking concepts, it has the potential to play a meaningful role in building foundational confidence for novice learners in programming.

The engineering design activity developed in this study may have contributed to enhancing pre-service elementary teachers’ preparedness for implementing engineering education. Participants showed improvements in their conceptual understanding and self-efficacy related to engineering design and computational thinking. Moreover, quantitative data from the participation perception scale indicates generally favorable evaluations of the activity, suggesting that participants gained multifaceted knowledge and skills through their engagement. Analyzing the open-ended responses further reveals that most pre-service teachers perceived the activity as practical and educationally meaningful, found it inspiring for future teaching, and expressed strong affirmation of the value of the activity design and the overall learning experience. Nevertheless, some participants expressed concerns regarding the limited duration of the activity; they felt the duration affected their project completeness and the depth of their learning. This finding suggests that extending the course duration and adjusting the pace of instruction in future implementations may further enhance the quality of the activity and its learning outcomes. This could serve to strengthen pre-service teachers’ instructional confidence and professional readiness for implementing engineering education in practice.

6. Conclusions

Considering the general lack of specialized training in engineering education within Taiwan’s elementary teacher preparation programs, this study aimed to enhance pre-service elementary teachers’ instructional readiness in the field of engineering education. Drawing on international K–12 engineering education models and integrating the computational thinking competencies emphasized in Taiwan’s national technology curriculum, the study developed a STEM-oriented engineering design activity. The activity involved using a micro:bit microcontroller to design an educational buzz wire game machine themed around energy education. It emphasized the integration of engineering design processes with science, mathematics, and technology. By engaging in this hands-on learning experience, the activity aimed to provide pre-service teachers with opportunities to actively participate in engineering design, strengthening their foundational understanding and self-efficacy in engineering design and computational thinking.

To evaluate the effectiveness of this instructional intervention, the activity was implemented in the context of an elementary teacher education course. The results indicate that participants, under the guidance of the engineering design process, completed seven educational buzz wire game machines incorporating energy education concepts. Quantitative data shows significant improvements in participants’ understanding of engineering concepts, engineering design self-efficacy, computational thinking, and programming self-efficacy, with the most noticeable effect size observed in programming self-efficacy. Furthermore, both the participation perception scale and qualitative feedback revealed strong positive attitudes toward the activity, with most participants perceiving it as practical, inspiring, and educationally meaningful. Therefore, this study’s proposed engineering design activity may support the professional growth of pre-service elementary teachers across multiple dimensions of engineering education. It may serve as a valuable reference for the design of future elementary teacher preparation curricula.

Given that this study adopted a one-group pretest–posttest design with a relatively small sample size (N = 27), the internal validity of the findings may be subject to threats such as testing effects and maturation, and the causal inferences and statistical power are restricted. Moreover, because the study was implemented in a single teacher-preparation course at one university in Taiwan, the external validity may also be limited. The CT test used in this study showed relatively low reliability, so future investigations should employ instruments with higher reliability. To address these limitations, future research could (a) conduct randomized controlled trials across multiple institutions, (b) implement longitudinal follow-up studies to examine the persistence of learning outcomes, and (c) carry out classroom implementation studies to measure student outcomes when pre-service teachers apply the developed artifacts.

In addition, extending the activity to a full three-credit course could allow pre-service elementary teachers to engage more deeply in the engineering design process, enabling the creation of more innovative and higher-quality artifacts and potentially further enhancing learning outcomes in terms of engineering design self-efficacy and computational thinking. Finally, using double-sided conductive copper tape is recommended as a more suitable material for constructing the buzz wire game project.