Non-Formal Education on Sustainable Tourism for Local Stakeholders in the Marico Biosphere Reserve: Effectiveness and Lessons Learned

Abstract

Education is essential to empower communities towards sustainable destination development. While research has covered the importance of participation and empowerment in achieving sustainable tourism in communities, academic discourse on educating local communities on sustainable tourism, particularly education via non-formal means, is scarce. To address this gap, our research aimed to determine perceptions of local stakeholders on the efficacy of a sustainable tourism workshop in the Marico Biosphere Reserve, South Africa. Sustainability is the cornerstone of biosphere reserves, with this reserve choosing sustainable tourism as its main development route. A workshop on sustainable tourism was designed according to the needs identified and offered to stakeholders involved in the reserve. This was followed by qualitative research via focus group interviews to investigate the positive effects perceived following this non-formal education event. The data culminated in a model, wherein the greatest effect was increased awareness regarding sustainable tourism. The themes of increased positivity, interest, and empowerment in sustainable tourism, as well as a desire to participate more, were also evident. In addition, interesting linkages between certain themes and codes emerged, which emphasize the positive knock-on effects of non-formal education in sustainable tourism. While the findings cannot be generalized to all contexts, they suggest the success of this type of education in furthering sustainable development practices for the betterment of local communities and tourists, as well as the natural environment. Furthermore, this exploratory research can inform the achievement of certain Sustainable Development Goals and guide managers and stakeholders in different settings who want to implement education on sustainable tourism.

1. Introduction

Achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) as part of sustainable destination development requires a great deal of education [1]. Education for sustainable development “seeks to empower individuals and communities to take action to address environmental problems and create sustainable futures” [2] (p. 7). Notwithstanding the important role of other initiatives to reach these SDGs, this paper deals with local-level initiatives. The Global Actional Programme on Education for Sustainable Development recognizes the role of local communities in resolving sustainability challenges in their communities, calling on experts to strengthen these communities’ learning opportunities to empower and increase their capacity [3]. Education and awareness-raising facilitate empowerment [4,5,6]. Empowerment is defined as “the process of an individual, group or community increasing their capacity and contextual power to meet their own goals, leading to their transformative action” [7] (p. 6). Often equated with empowerment, community capacity building is “the process of creating and growing the skills, competencies and processes that community organizations require to endure, adjust and prosper to meet the sustainable goals” [8] (p. 537). Community capacity building results in the community having a sense of ownership by improving their capacity to resolve priorities of their everyday lives, thus leading to greater sustainability [9].

The cognitive learning theory [10] suggests that a person’s knowledge structures either assimilate or accommodate new information. This information can be consumed through formal, non-formal, and informal learning structures. While there is ample research relating to SDG 4 (Quality Education) and the formal education system, we found limited academic discourse on alternative education approaches. With specific reference to local-level initiatives, Almeida and Morais [11] found that non-formal learning plays an important role in addressing the SDGs and in empowering communities. As Rogers [1] argues, it is not possible to achieve the learning targets within the SDGs through formal learning alone. He further asserts that non-formal education cannot be tied down to one sector alone. It is against this background that education for sustainable tourism, focusing on non-formal learning, can play an important role in communities.

Sustainable tourism follows the paradigm of sustainable development [12] and concerns a form of tourism that “takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment, and host communities” [13] (p.12). The development of community and tourism stakeholders’ knowledge is important in conjunction with sustainable tourism [14,15]. Educating the local community to have appropriate knowledge, skills, and abilities to participate is crucial for achieving sustainable tourism development [14,16,17], particularly as more communities look to tourism for economic gain and as natural and cultural resources are increasingly under threat [18].

Much has been written on the empowerment and participation of local communities in sustainable tourism [19]. However, limited research has focused on the ‘informed’ component of participation, yet this education may be key in fostering stakeholders’ understanding of the issues in sustainable tourism [18,20], and its effectiveness therefore needs to be researched [20].

In spite of this gap, several authors advocate the positive effects of sustainable tourism education, which highlights the necessity of this research. McGrath et al. [21] refer to education on sustainable tourism as a means of developing a stronger understanding of sustainable tourism management within a systems or holistic framework. Zulfa and Nugraheni [22] found that training local women in waste management as part of sustainable tourism in West Java resulted in increased knowledge. Cheng et al. [23] and Zulfa and Nugraheni [22] argue that education on sustainable tourism can encourage positive attitudes and perceptions toward sustainable tourism, which can result in positive participation and positive environmental behavior (a willingness to prevent environmental problems or resolve existing ones). The education facilitates empowerment by changing the attitudes of local tourism stakeholders, decreasing the negative environmental impacts of tourism, and facilitating sustainable tourism development [4,17]. Ramos and Prideaux [24] found that education assists communities in engaging and participating, makes them aware of changes, and increases their control due to greater awareness of personal, social, and environmental resources at their disposal. Waligo et al. [25] established that once stakeholders became familiar with the concept of sustainable tourism and its benefits, their interest in the project increased. They also found that stakeholders only become involved once they have an awareness and understanding of sustainable tourism.

The bottom-up process, individualized and participatory characteristics of non-formal education [11,26], is a good fit for education for sustainable tourism in communities. According to George and Reed [27], one of the imperatives to advance sustainability is community-based outcomes. These authors highlight the importance of learning together and information sharing as drivers for the effective implementation of community-based outcomes. The effects of education for sustainable tourism discussed above also give the impression that the learning emphasizes cognitive, affective, and conative elements, as non-formal education does [26].

In terms of the content of sustainable tourism education, it should be customized to the context. McGrath et al. [21] mention the importance of education on sustainability being grounded in a certain context or destination, as people then have a “home” in which to apply their knowledge. Cárdenas et al. [18] mention the costs and benefits of tourism development; the contribution that tourism can make towards community welfare; the impacts of tourism development on a community; imparting the knowledge and tools required for stakeholders to make good decisions (i.e., empowerment); and the principles of sustainable tourism development. Moscardo [28], on the other hand, explains that sustainable values (e.g., to support sustainable tourism, and values connected to cultures), knowledge (e.g., to support sustainable tourism, stakeholders involved, persuasive communication, and a system’s approach), and skills or capabilities (e.g., how to educate others, and innovation) should be part of education for sustainability.

Against the above background and research gap, this paper has the following research aim: To determine the perceptions of local stakeholders on the efficacy of a sustainable tourism workshop in the Marico Biosphere Reserve, South Africa. When participants share perceptions via qualitative methods, rich narratives can emerge [29] and novel insights can be offered into research on sustainability [30]. Determining perceptions can indicate participants’ judgment of the learning event [31]. Furthermore, Tuomainen [32], who highlights that research on non-formal education is limited, goes further to call for more research to focus on perceptions in non-formal education.

Figure 1 outlines the conceptual framework for this research, influenced by the literature above. Our map of the territory shows our focus on the intersection between sustainability, education, and tourism via the non-formal route of cognitive learning. It then outlines the possible content and effects of such a learning event, which influenced the design of our workshop and research instrument.

The paper first discusses the research design and methodology, followed by findings and discussion, and then the conclusion and lessons learnt.

2. Research Design and Methodology

This research is associated with an interpretivist and constructivist philosophy, as the researchers needed to make sense of the subjective and socially constructed meanings expressed through participants’ perceptions. Participants’ views are influenced by individual and group interpretations of the phenomenon being studied [33]. Qualitative research was undertaken using focus group interviews. Cárdenas et al. [18] (p. 263) contend that “qualitative methods could be used to capture richer data in regard to understanding and knowledge of sustainable tourism that may not be readily uncovered with cursory quantitative data”.

2.1. Study Site, Population, and Sample

Biosphere reserves are designated across the world to cover all major representative natural and semi-natural ecosystems to aid their conservation. However, people are integrally involved, with approximately 275 million people living in biosphere reserves. The Man and Biosphere Programme is run by UNESCO, and along with conservation, economic development and logistical support are key. Sustainability is the cornerstone of these reserves, with UNESCO referring to them as learning places for sustainable development [34] and sites wherein biodiversity conservation can be reconciled with development [35]. The program aims at an improved relationship between humans and the environment, with local communities playing an active role [36].

The Marico Biosphere Reserve (Marico BR) in the North-West province of South Africa (Figure 2), designated in 2018, is the youngest of the ten biosphere reserves in the country. It was selected as a biosphere reserve due to its unique freshwater systems, which belong to the broader Dolomitic Aquifer System of North-West; include the Molemane, Molopo, Elands, and Marico rivers; have three major rivers sharing a catchment area; and are crucial for water quality in large areas of South Africa which are downstream from the reserve [37]. Approximately 34,000 permanent residents and 53,000 seasonal residents reside within this biosphere reserve [37].

The biosphere reserve is managed and run by volunteers. Headed by the Marico Biosphere Reserve Management Authority, this group involves several residents and landowners who have bought into the concept and are investing time and energy. The local stakeholders of the Marico BR formed the population for this research. In this study, stakeholders refer to those groups or individuals who are residents/local community members in the Marico BR who are affected by the decisions and activities regarding the Marico BR [25]. Tourism is still limited in the biosphere reserve, but there is a keen interest in growing sustainable tourism. Two non-probability sampling methods were used, namely convenience sampling and snowball sampling. Owing to the new designation of the Marico BR, a population list was not available, but using contact details obtained from the Marico Biosphere Reserve Management Authority, a broad spectrum of stakeholders were invited, such as those involved in tourism, education, shops, the municipality, and farming. This was convenience sampling in the form of targeting stakeholders for whom the Marico Biosphere Reserve Management Authority had contacts, i.e., those who were accessible. The invitation to the stakeholders requested them to forward the invitation to other interested parties in the Marico BR (i.e., snowball sampling).

Screening questions ensured residency in the biosphere reserve and that participants were over 18 years of age and fluent in either English or Afrikaans. Their residency within the biosphere reserve ensured the context that McGrath et al. [21] refer to as being essential to successful education on sustainable tourism, as all participants have a stake in the reserve. The final sample consisted of 17 participants (6 females and 11 males), with 6 involved in tourism; 3 in teaching, reserve management, and management, respectively; 3 in farming, 4 retirees, and 1 who was unemployed. Small sample sizes are common in qualitative research that seeks perceptions, as the purpose is to gain in-depth knowledge regarding a situation and aim for data saturation [38].

This sample was divided into three focus group interviews in order to allow more perceptions to emerge. Savin-Baden and Howell Major [39] contend that a minimum of three focus group interviews on the same topic is required for common themes to emerge and saturation to be achieved. Regarding the size of focus groups, Creswell [40] advises six to eight participants, Walden [41] recommends 6 to 12, and Savin-Baden and Howell Major [39] suggest 4–5 for mini-focus groups and 6–12 for standard focus groups. Ours consisted of 5, 6, and 6 participants, respectively.

2.2. Workshop Design and Research Method

The three researchers have an ongoing project in the reserve, called ‘Sustainable tourism in the Marico Biosphere Reserve’. As part of previous interactions, locals identified the need for more knowledge on sustainable tourism. This birthed the idea for an educational workshop entitled “Sustainable Tourism Made Real”, accompanied by research into the efficacy of the workshop. According to Ørngreen and Levinsen [42], a workshop is an arrangement whereby a group of people learns, gains new knowledge, performs problem-solving, or innovates on a domain-specific issue. Our workshop was carefully designed to offer what the stakeholders had requested, together with filling gaps we had previously identified (e.g., lack of understanding of what a biosphere reserve is, the meaning of sustainability and sustainable tourism, and the need for participation in sustainable tourism). In addition to working closely with local stakeholders to understand the needs on the ground, one of the researchers hails from the area, and the project was in its fifth year of existence at the time of the research, giving the researchers a deep understanding of the inhabitants. This informed the workshop design and style. It was also designed to cover aspects that literature indicates as important. Regarding the latter, the Stakeholder Understanding of Sustainable Tourism Development Index (SUSTDI) by Cárdenas et al. [18] and Moscardo [28] were particularly helpful in guiding the material to be covered in the workshop, as targeted material assists decision-making on the type of tourism and activities that stakeholders want in their community. The focus on educating on all three pillars and their inter-relationships (a holistic approach) is emphasized by Sinakou et al. [20] and Schultz et al. [43]; Moscardo and Murphy [44] highlight that education for sustainable tourism requires attention to tourism impacts; and Moscardo [45] is well known for her work on interpretation to tourists as a means of fostering sustainable tourism. Though research also highlights the importance of learning particular skills for sustainable tourism [20,44], our workshop focused on making the theory of sustainable tourism as practical and relevant to their context as possible, but not on learning certain practical skills. The thematic aspects of the workshop content are covered in

Table 1. Thematic aspects of the workshop.

Workshop Content	Brief Explanation of Content
Biosphere reserves	What is a biosphere reserve? How do they operate? The Marico Biosphere Reserve (designation history and uniqueness) Why does sustainable tourism matter in the Marico Biosphere Reserve? Zones within the Marico Biosphere Reserve
Introducing sustainability	Balancing the three pillars: environment, social, and economic Sustainable Development Goals Holistic thinking Sustainable tourism as viable land-use option
Introducing tourism	Definitions and explanation of tourist activities and tourist expenditure
Introducing sustainable tourism	Adding fourth element of ‘The tourist’ to environment, social, and economic pillars
Understanding tourism impacts	Economic impacts, socio-cultural impacts, and impacts on natural and built-up environment
Environment	Examples of how sustainable tourism can be practiced to positively impact on the natural environment of the Marico BR
Social	Examples of how sustainable tourism can be practiced to positively impact on the socio-cultural fabric of the Marico BR
Economy	Examples of how sustainable tourism can be practiced to positively impact on the economy of the Marico BR
Tourist	Examples of how sustainable tourism can be practiced to positively impact the tourist
Interpretation	Defining it and discussing how it can be used by stakeholders to elicit responsible behavior by tourists
Sustainable management	All stakeholders in the Marico BR have a part to play
Case studies of sustainable tourism	Three case studies of good practice were shared

.

The workshop and research were held on 5 October 2022 on a farm in the biosphere reserve, which has an open-air venue that could accommodate a group. The workshop took 1.5 h, followed by the focus group interviews, which spanned 1 to 1.5 h each. All three researchers presented different components, with an accompanying PowerPoint presentation. It was presented in English, as all participants were proficient in English. Facilitator bias was minimized due to the very specific design of the content as described above, and all three researchers were present throughout, which enhances accountability. The workshop was interspersed with interactive activities that assisted participants in internalizing and applying existing and new knowledge, as well as engaging in practical case studies. Examples of these include a discussion on “How does tourism impact the whole community?” and “Brainstorm examples of tourism impacts (positive and negative) on the three pillars of sustainability”.

Prior to the workshop and field work, the researchers designed the research instrument. Due to the scarcity of research into the efficacy of sustainable tourism education, no existing instrument was suitable. Five open-ended questions were formulated to determine perceptions of the efficacy of the workshop. These questions were gleaned from the literature as explained in Section 1. They focused on the effects that previous research stated could result following education in sustainable tourism. Participant perceptions are valuable in assessing the effectiveness of this non-formal educational event that was presented in the form of a workshop [9,24,25]. The research instrument as presented to participants in the focus groups is provided in

Table 2. Research instrument and effects investigated.

	Question	Effects of Sustainable Tourism Education on Participants
1	How has your understanding of sustainable tourism changed after the workshop?	Increased awareness of sustainable tourism
2	How did your opinions change about the Marico BR after the workshop?	Increased positivity/Improved attitude regarding the Marico BR
3	After the workshop, are you more interested in the Marico BR? In what way?	Increased interest in sustainable tourism Increased desire to participate in sustainable tourism Increased awareness of sustainable tourism
4	After the workshop, how are you now equipped to contribute to or participate in sustainable tourism?	More equipped/empowered to participate in sustainable tourism Increased positivity/Improved attitude towards sustainable tourism
5	What will you now do as an individual to participate in sustainable tourism?	More equipped/empowered to participate in sustainable tourism Increased desire to participate in sustainable tourism

, along with the effects each question assessed.

Focus groups were chosen as opposed to individual interviews to allow both individual and collective views to emerge. Myers [46] articulates that focus group interviews encourage thoughtful discussion, enabling participants to move beyond their own ideas and build on others’ ideas. Participants were grouped in such a way as to ensure a mix of community backgrounds. The unstructured, free-flowing form of the three focus groups, facilitated by the researchers, was ideal to probe the effects of the sustainable tourism workshop on participants. This flexible, yet focused format, allowed data to be collected that produced new knowledge and new insights [47].

The three researchers each conducted one focus group at the same time, spread out in different places at the venue, so that the groups did not disturb each other. The researchers all followed the same questions, order of questions, and had noted suitable prompts for each question prior to the fieldwork. This was to align approaches as far as possible. However, researchers were allowed the flexibility to explore a certain concept further and use other prompts where necessary. The researchers probed within each question, attempting to draw out different opinions and different individuals. Only once no further responses were elicited, did we move to the next question. All three facilitated their focus group until no new themes emerged. All interviews were recorded.

2.3. Data Analysis

Each focus group interview was transcribed by an outside transcriber, and quotes in Afrikaans were translated into English. One researcher then checked all three transcriptions against the recordings for accuracy. The transcriptions were imported to Atlas.ti 24. After gauging a general feel for the data, one of the researchers commenced with thematic analysis. Coding was both deductive, in the sense that the questions and what they intended to investigate were derived from the existing body of knowledge to create a priori codes [33]. This provided the main codes (which we call themes), for example, “Increased awareness” and “Increased interest”, which provided an initial direction (see Figure 1: Conceptual framework). However, during coding, an inductive approach was also used to determine codes within the themes, where appropriate (which we call codes). The themes and codes were used to code/label extracts of data [33]. These units of data were most often quoted from one individual, but sometimes involved a conversation on the same topic, where context and richness would be lost if it were coded as an individual quote. The three focus group interviews in this exploratory research elicited in-depth, rich findings [40] in the form of quotes, which validated our choice of methodology. Each theme and code received a detailed code definition, and memos were written to document the process for the sake of the researchers who would code next. Through an iterative process, codes were adapted, merged, and split as coding continued. Once coding was complete, all codes were examined individually to check if their quotes did indeed belong under a certain code. More changes were made until the researcher was satisfied with the coding scheme.

To add validity and ensure consistency, the coding was then checked by the other two researchers. They went through the three transcripts question by question and adapted codes where deemed necessary and also documented the process using their own memos in Atlas.ti. Where coding differed, this was discussed by all three researchers until the coding scheme was finalized. The coding scheme consisted of the main themes and the codes within these, as illustrated in our model in Figure 3. The first author interrogated these further to determine any links that may be present between the codes/themes. These are also illustrated in Figure 3 and needed to emerge clearly from our data in order to be included in the model. Each code within its theme was further analyzed and written up, using quotes to substantiate the various codes. As part of the discussion, our findings are also compared to those of other researchers. Themes and codes are displayed in single quotation marks and quotes in double quotation marks and italicized. The transcript from which they came is indicated as T1, T2, or T3, and participants within each focus group are labeled as Participant 1, 2, and so forth. For example, T1, P1 means the quote came from Focus Group 1 (i.e., Transcript 1), Participant 1.

3. Findings and Discussion

Figure 3 presents our model of local stakeholders’ perceived effects of a sustainable tourism workshop in the Marico BR. The model outlines the themes/main effects and, where relevant, the codes within each theme. Each theme and code within Figure 3 is presented and discussed according to its grouping in the model in Section 3.1, Section 3.2, Section 3.3, Section 3.4 and Section 3.5. These are labeled within the figure to indicate in which section each is discussed. Figure 3 also presents the linkages between various themes and codes, which are labeled as Direct links (DL) or Tenuous links (TL). Each link is explained within its relevant theme.

Figure 3. Local stakeholders perceived effects of a sustainable tourism workshop in the Marico Biosphere Reserve (Authors’ own compilation).

Figure 3. Local stakeholders perceived effects of a sustainable tourism workshop in the Marico Biosphere Reserve (Authors’ own compilation).

3.1. Increased Awareness of Sustainable Tourism

The answers to the questions probing increased awareness (Questions 1 and 3 in Table 2) resulted in the most prevalent theme, strongly suggesting that, based on participants’ perceptions, this workshop on sustainable tourism resulted in increased awareness. Within this theme, eight codes were developed, containing a total of 77 quotations.

3.1.1. Knowing More and Reinforcement

‘Know more/Food for thought’, what Piaget [10] would refer to as accommodation, was the largest code group within the theme of ‘Increased awareness’ and the 25 quotes within this code related to participants, following the workshop, having content to mull over; having new ideas to implement sustainable tourism; understanding more about sustainable tourism; and realizing the need for greater understanding.

Mulling over the workshop content was encapsulated by quotes such as “I think we need some time to think about this … that’s very important” (T1, P1) and “Food for thought” (T1, P2). Other quotes related to getting new ideas about implementing sustainable tourism, for example: “… I’ve got some new ideas [on implementing sustainable tourism]” (T3, P1).

Most quotes within this code were on participants’ understanding more about sustainable tourism and learning from the workshop:

“I think we understand it better… than … in the beginning” (T2, P2).

“I think I’m more broad minded now. And I know things that I didn’t know before” (T2, P2).

“I definitely feel enlightened, I’ve got a broader knowledge base now to work with” (T2, P3).

“I have really learned a lot today” (T3, P2).

The workshop included a section on what biosphere reserves are, the ten biosphere reserves in South Africa, and why the Marico BR was designated. Several participants are very involved in the reserve, but for others, this was an eye-opener. Specific areas of learning here were that different zones exist in the biosphere (T2, P4); and that the Marico BR is one of ten biosphere reserves in South Africa and the youngest (T3, P2). Participants also mulled over the advantages of learning from and networking with other biosphere reserves in terms of challenges (T2, P4), threats (T2, P4) and benefits (T2, P3) encountered, for example, “… Magaliesberg had been a biosphere for a long time … what were the major benefits [locals] got out of it. …, so, we can [gain from] their knowledge, … that we could actually implement” (T2, P3).

In terms of specific learning on sustainable tourism, two quotes emerged, one of which is shown below:

“… the fact that you included ‘The tourist’ as a fourth component of sustainable tourism has clarified a number of things and deepened the understanding. Because your normal literature … speaks about the environment and social and economic, but they don’t necessarily link the tourism, the tourist as a fourth component. … that was very valuable … because that’s the actual guy who must open his purse. It must be one of the components in our planning …” (T3, P3).

Two quotes revealed that the workshop had highlighted the need to increase their understanding of sustainable tourism:

“[Sustainable tourism is] something we need to work on. … we’ve got the building blocks that we need to start working harder towards it, we need to understand more about it and how we can implement it in our daily lives here” (T2, P1).

“It’s a wonderful thing that we’ve been recognized for what we have here [referring to the biosphere designation] … as far as our nature is concerned. But we can obviously improve. And that’s what we’re trying to do in these types of workshops. We want to try and understand how we can improve things for the better, for everybody in the future” (T2, P1).

Waligo et al. [25] established that stakeholders only become involved after gaining awareness and understanding of sustainable tourism. We also found this link between the code of ‘Knowing more’ and the theme of ‘More equipped/empowered to participate’ (DL 1). The more participants know, the more equipped/empowered they become. This concurs with Cárdenas et al. [18], that understanding sustainable tourism facilitates participation. It is also confirmed by Cole [48], who found that knowledge of sustainable tourism imparted via a Tourism Forum led to increased self-esteem and confidence (i.e., empowerment).

For some participants, the learning was not new, but a reinforcement, i.e., assimilation according to Piaget [10] [‘Reinforces what we know’ (6 quotes)]. This code under the theme of ‘Increased awareness’ showed that, for some participants, the workshop helped to recap key concepts and fitted in with existing actions. For example, participants related that “It was nice to see … that what we are already doing fits into what needs to be done” (T1, P3); “It was a renewal for me. Yes, it’s nice to hear it again …” (T3, P1); and “Marico’s people are the right people. They already have that mindset …” (T2, P4).

3.1.2. Community Participation, Knowledge Sharing, and Cohesion

Participants verbalized increased awareness of the ‘Need to include the wider community’ (14 quotes). P1 in T2 commented that she would like to have a more varied community come together. Another participant, already working extensively with the local Tswana community, commented that “I [noted] the emphasis that was put on community participation towards sustainability, and it really helped me. And also let me think how can we get the broader community to become really positive toward tourism in Groot Marico” (T1, P4). This was echoed by the following quote, which also introduces the concept of lost culture, which links to socio-cultural sustainability: “What really struck me is [the] social impact. … so many Tswana people living around us, who are totally unrepresented here … who have no concept [of] eco-tourism. And I don’t know how to include them, and I’m very aware that we don’t include them enough at the centre where I work. We employ them and they get money, but … the community where I live … were all brought in as farm labourers. They left their indigenous cultures behind. And … I don’t know how one could … reintroduce culture” (T1, P3).

Others specifically mentioned young people:

“… after we’ve heard what you said here, [we need] younger people from Marico to participate, to buy-into what we are trying to achieve … they are the future, have the energy and are better with social media” (T1, P1).

“… that’s the only sad part of Marico … there’s no young blood coming, nothing … That’s the sustainable thing to work on …, bring younger people in …” (T1, P2).

It emerged strongly that the wider community needs to be involved, and that education on sustainability is key for them to understand the concept and get on board. This led to a discussion on the importance of ongoing education on sustainability, for example, P3 in T1 said “… we can try to focus more on education and involving … the community”. In Focus Group 2, the need for education on sustainability also came through, for example, “The community must also be aware of what sustainability is” (T2, P2); “Education is key. [If] the community understands what we are all trying to do … what our end goal is, … we will succeed … if … they are all on board” (T2, P3); “… through education, starting off at the creche, primary and high schools that they understand it because then [they will] start talking to parents and friends … so that everyone understands what one could potentially have …” (T2, P3); “The meetings should probably not stop [here] … it should continue in the community” (T2, P4); and “[Education] needs to … keep going” (T2, P1).

Therefore, it appears that our education on sustainability led to awareness of the need for further and ongoing education and gatherings centered on sustainability in the wider community. George and Reed [27] concur, noting the importance of learning together and information sharing as a community-based outcome that drives sustainability.

With the above code highlighting the need for education on sustainable tourism and sustainability in the wider community, it is logical to next discuss the code, ‘Desire to share new knowledge’ (5 quotes), which is a need acknowledged by Cárdenas et al. [18] and Khalid et al. [17] and emerges in our research as something that participants were eager to do. After recognizing the need to include the wider community, participants moved on to state their desire to share new knowledge with them (DL 2). After the workshop, they felt more empowered, knowledgeable, and enlightened, and therefore ready to talk to others about sustainability, in general, and within the biosphere reserve:

“Yes … I have knowledgeable information after today, and I can try and evaluate it when I get home and try teach others on how to sustain the environment” (T2, P5).

“If you start telling people around you, it’s going to grow. … You need ambassadors for the biosphere … and more people will then become enlightened …. [We] can impart that knowledge to other people …” (T2, P3).

“[By] having these meetings we all walk away enlightened. So, you can … now … impart what we have. … Whereas before, I didn’t know much about it, so I didn’t know how to engage in conversation” (T2, P1).

A clear link was established here between the code ‘Desire to share new knowledge’ and the theme ‘More equipped/empowered to participate’ (DL 3). People now feel confident to tell others because they are equipped. Educators should keep this in mind when designing courses and workshops and build in resources that stakeholders can use to educate others, thus enhancing the ripple effect beyond the initial education event.

Out of the call above for wider community participation came the ‘Need for more cooperation and cohesion’ (4 quotes) (DR 4) amongst those who already know about the biosphere reserve, for example, other landowners and farmers. But firstly, the current collaboration is acknowledged [Appreciate current cohesion and collaboration (9 quotes)].

Key words emerging here were: being on the same page, cohesion/team building/networking, awareness of others’ activities, and knowing you are not alone. Though Botha [49] highlights the importance of social cohesion in furthering sustainable tourism development, for us, this link between education and cohesion/collaboration was an unintended but positive outcome of the workshop. The three quotes below illustrate that, while learning together, group unity increased, along with a fresh realization of the importance of working together:

“I also feel more motivated to see that there are more people involved … not that you are standing alone. … it’s very important that we should take hands and go forward” (T1, P1).

“Well, the networking is nice. You know which community members are on the same mindset, so, you can work together” (T2, P4).

“… to get cohesion in the group, that everyone is on the same chapter regarding what sustainability is …” (T3, P5).

The appreciation and realization of cohesion came through opportunities where participants could interact during the workshop, via activities, as well as through the focus group interviews at the end. It is unlikely that cohesion would be fostered by classroom-style forms of education. Our qualitative data suggested a clear link between the code ‘Appreciate current cohesion and collaboration’ and the theme ‘Increased positivity/Improved attitude’ (DL 5) discussed later. This is supported by Cheng et al. [23], who suggest that institutions should use cohesion to help foster sustainable tourism development attitudes.

Secondly, despite the above, participants were aware of the need for more cooperation and cohesion—it needs to be wider, positive, and with each individual contributing. P1 in T2 remarked “… we need cooperation, cohesion to come together to support each other and say, ‘follow these steps [shown] today to make it work’. And it needs to be done in a positive light as well”. P1 in T3 reflected on the complexities of getting people on board: “… we still do not receive enough cooperation from everyone. … Look at how many people were invited to this, and who actually showed up. People do not want to get involved. … we can’t pull this wagon through the drift on our own”.

3.1.3. Gives Direction

Participants demonstrated increased awareness regarding direction, with the ten quotes centering around moving forward in a more sustainable manner and specific ways to do this. Participants appeared empowered, with statements such as now knowing how to do it, what to plan, and naming particular actions to take. This, therefore, establishes another link, one between the code ‘Gives direction’ and the theme ‘More equipped/empowered to participate’ (DL 6).

Regarding the right direction, examples include:

“… [the workshop] triggered … a way forward, with our emphasis on protecting our area” (T1, P1).

“I don’t think Marico gets enough tourists to have an impact yet, but it’s good to start now learning about it. If it becomes popular in the future—that we go in with the right mindset, that we don’t come back in ten years and say, ‘Oh, we should have done this …’. So, it’s good that you have told us, so we can’t say … we didn’t know” (T2, P4).

“… it gives us a direction … what to plan and how to do it” (T2, P1).

Focus Group 3 concentrated on specific ideas:

“… we can go and look for footpaths, develop walkways, the farmer’s wife could do a lunch … It could be … a whole new way of getting people involved. … if we can get a few more interesting places ready before December [holidays] … Let’s show them something new” (T3, P1).

“To make that practical, … as soon as possible, we must get together … and sort out the calendar for next year … and we must decide, this is our strategy and plan … to do something new for December … This workshop facilitated the process to get to that point” (T3, P5).

Following this comment, participants agreed in an enthused manner. Other specific ideas were erecting an information board in town at the visitor center (T3, P1 and P2), and creating a carbon credit system as a form of fundraising (T3, P5).

3.1.4. See Bigger Picture

Within this code with three quotes, participants identified aspects now contributing to them having a bigger picture of sustainability—that it was not just about money nor just about tourism, and that sustainable tourism was large and complex. While positive about understanding the concept better, they now acknowledged its complexity:

“I thought as a young businessman, it’s only about making money, but after today [I have] a wider spectrum” (T1, P2).

“[There is] not only tourism, there’s the farming, there’s this and that … [which] become part of sustainability. … that’s the learning at the end of the day” (T2, P3).

“… I have gained a better understanding of how big the problem really is, how diverse it is, and in some ways, I feel more daunted … than I did before. I’m reminded of the idiom, ‘This is a big elephant, and how do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time’. … how do I get the bite that’s going to matter the most within my capabilities? … So maybe some naivete has gone out … it’s a big and very complex issue” (T3, P4).

Sinakou et al. [20], in their work on education for sustainable development, argue for a holistic approach that recognizes the three pillars, the relationships between them, and the inherent complexity of the concept. Similarly, Schultz et al. [43] (p. 2), writing about learning in biosphere reserves, found that it changed people’s perspective of the human-environment relationship, heightening understanding of the separate pillars of sustainability and helping stakeholders “… to learn to live with social-ecological complexity”. However, with the concept’s complexity comes the need to ensure that education on sustainable tourism is simplified and linked to the learners’ daily lives [50] through well-illustrated practical examples and case studies.

3.2. Increased Positivity/Improved Attitude Towards Sustainable Tourism

The next theme, which had far fewer quotes (10) than ‘Increased awareness’, was ‘Increased positivity/Improved attitude’ and was explored through Questions 2 and 4 (Table 2). Ten quotes were coded within this theme and covered the workshop motivating and exciting participants; focusing thoughts; inspiring new ideas to improve; leading to a newfound unity (proud and excited to be part of the Marico BR); and helping one to feel more invested.

Motivation and having new ideas/inspiration went hand in hand in four quotes, for example: “One gets so tied up with everyday life … so, to attend a workshop like this, where you are … once again focused, it really helps to get your thoughts going and more motivated” (T1, P3); and a participant, speaking about insect life, stated that “… I would love to be able to sit in the river with school kids and say to them, let’s turn over this stone. Look at those little things there. … How do they interact? Why are they important? Things like that excite me, … fires me up and that’s part of what I’ve got out from today” (T3, P4). Another participant articulated, “Yes, I’m also excited. You know, you cool a bit off at times, but [we are] trying to … live as green as possible, and, because we know now … there’s a lot more potential here. We’re always looking for things that guests can do. And that has fired me up again to look at new types of things …” (T3, P4).

In terms of acknowledging a newfound unity, a leader in the biosphere reserve observed the following: “What is very positive for me with regards to today’s workshop—I hear more people saying, ‘our biosphere reserve’ than ‘the biosphere reserve’. … the biosphere reserve is not mine, it’s ours. And [its] success depends on everyone … getting involved and taking ownership. … that alone makes the workshop worthwhile” (T3, P3). Another participant responded that “Yes, that’s what’s going to pull the wagon through the drift in the end” (T3, P1). This reinforces the two-way link (DL 5) in Figure 3 between ‘appreciating current cohesion and collaboration’ and ‘increasing positivity’.

The educational workshop focus appeared to bear fruit in contrast to other meetings: “We’ve had other meetings [where I didn’t really feel as invested [as] I do here. … we can put that message out … to start the ball rolling” (T3, P2).

A further link evident is that ‘Increased positivity/Improved attitude’ can result in ‘Increased desire to participate’ (DL 7), for example, being excited and latching onto the idea to teach children about riverine insects. This link was also found by Cheng et al. [23], who argue that education on sustainable tourism fosters positive attitudes to sustainability, resulting in participation. Other research reveals that the relationship can go in the opposite direction too, with participation leading to positive attitudes [51].

3.3. Increased Interest in Sustainable Tourism

This theme was probed via Question 3 (Table 2), eliciting six quotes. Four quotes concerned increased interest in developing and protecting one’s own destination for sustainable tourism, for example: “… I’m proud to be part of this environment and everything got me thinking how can I improve and [get] new ideas from outside … expand …” (T1, P5). Another participant reflected on his ecotourism camp being developed and commented that “… this triggered a way forward with our emphasis on protecting our area” (T1, P1).

The other two quotes related to increased interest in achieving general sustainable tourism goals, in this case, conserving nature and the socio-cultural environment. One participant expressed new interest in the biosphere reserve in terms of “conserving the nature—that’s the most important in the Marico biosphere” (T2, P5); while the other focused on the people aspect, with increased interest on “The culture, the history, the stories, the people, … But you can’t do everything on your own. You have to decide what you would like to do the most” (T2, P2).

The reflections under ‘Increased interest’ clearly link to the desire to participate. Whether that is in one’s own tourist establishment or more general action, all are steps towards participating in sustainability in the BR, hence the link in Figure 3 from ‘Increased interest’ to ‘Increased desire to participate’ (DL 8). A further link, though more tenuous, is to ‘More equipped/empowered to participate’ (TL 1). They mention ‘new ideas’, ‘a way forward’, and being more interested now in conserving nature and culture.

3.4. Increased Desire to Participate in Sustainable Tourism

‘Increased desire to participate’ was tested using Questions 3 and 5 and six quotes were coded here. This theme is related to participants’ general increased eagerness to participate. Some quotes concerned the desire to be involved or to reach out to the community, for example: “… I tend to do things on my own. Today motivated me to reach out to the community with [what] we’ve discussed here” (T1, P3); and “I’m happy to be involved … I’d like to be involved” (T2, P1).

Others highlighted the desire to now take action, with comments like “More doing than talking” (T1, P1), with one participant highlighting an action—taking plants from their own gardens and planting them in the nearby township (T3, P1). One participant stressed the importance of starting and others will follow: “… you cannot wait for everyone to agree. You’ve got to do a little bit here, a little bit there. Then someone will say ‘that was easy. I can do that’” (T3, P2).

A tenuous link emerges between this theme and ‘More equipped/empowered to participate’ (TL 2). Participants talk about feeling more equipped to ‘reach out to the community’, actually ‘doing’; wanting to be involved; and having new ideas. Interestingly, Shafiesabet and Haratifard [4] found the inverse relationship—that empowerment positively influenced local stakeholder participation in sustainable tourism development.

3.5. More Equipped/Empowered to Participate in Sustainable Tourism

Feeling more equipped or empowered to participate was explored via Questions 4 and 5 and yielded four quotes. In contrast to Section 3.4, this theme went beyond the desire to participate, focusing on specific ideas and knowledge that participants had obtained from the workshop, which now made them feel more empowered to participate, i.e., more equipped. There was a clear link between what they had learnt, spurring them on to take action at their various establishments, such as using the new ideas to increase visitor satisfaction and expand (T1, P5); and using information obtained to teach others to sustain the environment—both community members (T2, P5) and tourists (T1, P4). This makes DL 3 a two-way relationship. Further quotes also illustrate this:

“I like your idea of having more comprehensive information in each house about the environment … [for example] why we ask you to sort your rubbish … more of a code of conduct” (T1, P4).

“… the ideas or information you’ve given… has made me want to go back to my establishment, re-analyze … and … try to improve on certain things [to] give my guests a more … eco-friendly experience?” (T2, P1).

Education on sustainable tourism appears to be a relatively untapped form of empowerment, but one that is effective in equipping stakeholders to make a difference. Research shows that empowerment leads to more support for sustainable tourism; improved attitudes; less negative impacts from tourism; and transformative action (i.e., behavior change) [4,5,17].

4. Conclusions and Lessons Learnt

As more communities seek to benefit from sustainable tourism development, non-formal learning about sustainable practices becomes increasingly important. As our participants acknowledged, it is optimal to choose the right direction from the start. Sustainability should be infused within tourism planning and all stakeholders equipped to make the right decisions regarding tourism products and experiences—whether starting/managing these or supporting the overall direction of sustainability via individual choices (for example, waste management and keeping rivers clean). Due to the importance of education on sustainable tourism, and that it has received less attention in the literature, especially non-formal education, our research aimed to qualitatively investigate local stakeholders’ perceptions of the effectiveness of a sustainable tourism workshop.

We found that education on sustainable tourism through our workshop had a wide range of desirable effects with linkages that cast new light on interactions between effects. Our research confirmed the effects presented in our conceptual framework (Figure 1) but moved beyond these. This cognitive learning predominantly increased awareness (see Section 3.1). The dominance of this effect is a new contribution. Moreover, the codes emerging within increased awareness, as set out in Figure 3, expand on the effects in Figure 1, yielding various sub-effects which are valuable in designing future non-formal education initiatives. The workshop encouraged understanding, stimulated thinking, and gave them the “how to do this” via ideas, hence empowering them as they accommodated new information. The education also facilitated a recap of existing knowledge (assimilation), which they could slot into existing sustainable actions (see Section 3.1.1). Other novel findings are that education led to acknowledgement of the need for ongoing education and wider inclusion (via education). Furthermore, they now felt empowered to share this knowledge, showing that one educational event could lead to others. This highlights the potential ripple effect of non-formal learning on other community members. This can inspire educators regarding how to equip communities to independently teach others on sustainability. The interactive nature of the educational workshop resulted in a realization of cohesion, which improved positivity towards sustainable tourism and vice versa. However, they also recognized the need for more cohesion in order to achieve sustainable tourism (see Section 3.1.2). These findings suggest that education for sustainable tourism can provide the necessary cohesion required for its development in instances where there is a lack thereof. The increased awareness revealed itself further through stimulating the “how to do this” (via gaining direction) (Section 3.1.3), which, in turn, empowered them, and through stakeholders now understanding the different pillars and complexity of sustainable tourism (Section 3.1.4).

In addition, this education on sustainable tourism improved positivity by inspiring and focusing participants (see Section 3.2), which also fed the sense of cohesion and desire to participate. This suggests that education on sustainable tourism not only leads to empowerment but also to improved participation. Education increased participants’ interest in their own establishments and in sustainability in general (Section 3.3), linking to the desire to participate and tenuously suggesting that interest could fuel empowerment. Regarding increased desire to participate, education resulted in locals wanting to reach out and take action, with a tenuous implication that this could also empower (Section 3.4). Under increased empowerment (see Section 3.5), data implies that education made participants feel they could take action at their own homes/establishments as well as teaching others (both locals and tourists), hence linking back to the desire to share newfound knowledge. The majority of the codes/themes were positive (i.e., things that had been gained from the workshop), except for the codes of ‘Need more cooperation and cohesion’ and ‘Need to include wider community’. However, acknowledging these is helpful in moving forward. While the findings cannot be generalized to all contexts, non-formal education on sustainable tourism thus appears to yield several positive effects that can further the agenda of sustainable development at the destination level. Community members, community leaders, NGOs, and larger organizations involved in the biosphere reserve, such as UNESCO, can draw from these findings. This education should be continuous and can be facilitated by different role players assisting with various types of education to achieve the SDGs—not only quality education, but also the SDG of sustainable communities, which is a goal of the Marico BR. The type of non-formal education investigated here can be particularly beneficial to furthering SDG achievement in communities that have less access to formal education [11]. It has the advantage of being more flexible—it can be customized to what the community needs to learn at the time, and the content and approach can be guided by the community itself. Examples of this type of education include broad instruction on sustainable tourism principles (as we did); education from UNESCO (such as training in Citizen Science); and focused hands-on training (such as on recycling or how communities can use what they have, to create sustainable products/experiences for guests).

In revisiting Figure 1, within ‘Tools’, practical support regarding how participants can share new knowledge, i.e., teach others, should feature. Creative knowledge-sharing mechanisms require exploration. Raising community champions who can teach, share skills, and empower local people is ultimately more sustainable than using outsiders to educate. In terms of the workshop ‘Content’, the research revealed important additions. Firstly, interactive activities must form part of workshops. We included them, but on seeing their value in feeding cohesion, these can be more intentionally designed. Interactive activities can also be used to expand the practical implementation of sustainable tourism, with a post-workshop activity where participants engage in how to implement what they have learnt, in their own context. Sinakou et al. [20] talk about social learning as important in education on sustainable development and highlight the importance of learner participation, peer interaction, and group work. Secondly, since we found the need for ongoing education and more inclusion, workshops could end with discussions on how this can be achieved through collaboration between educators, other role players, community bodies, and community members. Regarding ‘Context’, material needs to be targeted and tailor-designed for its specific audience, which makes it very different from formal education. Empowerment and participation in sustainable development depend on the stakeholders’ level of education and their understanding of sustainability; hence, determining this level is ideal when designing targeted educational programs [18,19]. If numbers are large enough, the level of understanding of sustainable tourism and knowing the audience can first be determined quantitatively, in order to tailor future education.

While these findings are novel, the study had some limitations. The convenience and snowball sampling techniques caused a selection and referral bias; however, the focus groups were specifically set up to have diversity amongst members so that one context did not dominate the discussion. Though this study adhered to qualitative methodological guidelines in terms of sample size, and the data collected were rich and comprehensive enough to address the research aim and identify recurring codes and themes, additional interviews could yield further nuances. The researchers also acknowledge that the learning that took place could be influenced by other factors apart from the content and style of the workshop, such as the specific facilitators and their style, and the input/influence of other participants.

Future research can expand this to other biosphere reserves and compare findings. Focus is required on strategies to obtain a wider spectrum of stakeholders involved in sustainable tourism, as this is a common challenge in community research. This can lead to a wider net for research and richer data. In our research, several interesting links emerged between the various effects of the workshop, providing further insights into the positive knock-on effects of sustainable tourism education. Further research is required on these linkages, as understanding these can strengthen the design of educational initiatives within non-formal education settings. This research could include using workshops to first encourage group cohesion and collaboration, as this improves community attitudes towards sustainable tourism. The learning provided can be assessed to determine if it has given direction, and, in turn, empowered. The type of workshop we gave can also be used as a starting point to identify further workshops that can focus on particular skills needed for sustainable tourism, i.e., homing in on the practical characteristics of non-formal education. Finally, research can measure the progress of a sustainable tourism project after residents have been informed/educated on sustainable tourism, i.e., to what extent has the learning enabled the integration of sustainable tourism principles into local businesses [52] and into individuals’ ways of living? Does this knowledge indeed lead to progress and behavior change, i.e., action for sustainable solutions at the local level? For example, Cole [48], in the context of knowledge as a form of empowerment, found that this can result in communities determining their own development. Zulfa and Nugraheni [22] make the jump from education to changes in behavior, while Cheng et al. [23], contend that education on sustainable tourism leads to positive attitudes, then positive participation, then positive environmental behavior. More studies like this are required to measure the success of sustainable tourism education in empowering communities towards sustainable futures.

Non-formal education is an overlooked yet powerful tool to steer communities and their environment towards sustainable destination development that benefits tourism and society. Education needs to take its place as an important form of empowerment, and more guidelines and direction are required to establish non-formal education as the true asset that it is.