Tendencies in Green Surface Design in Contemporary Remodels of Market Squares: The Example of Lesser Poland

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a study on manners of green area design, with green areas understood as areas with biologically vital surfaces, in the context of contemporary remodelling of historical market squares. This study approaches this problem comprehensively with the example of Lesser Poland—a region in southern Poland. The presented detailed analysis covers cities and towns where a major town or city square was remodelled in the period between 2009 and 2024. The findings of this study of these spaces’ development—both before and after the completion of their respective remodelling projects—have been presented as comparative diagrams. Based on this, essential quantitative parameters linked to green area surface area and the biologically vital area to square ratio were calculated for the pre- and post-remodel stages. Interpreting the findings enabled the identification of the quantitative changes that occurred during the remodelling of each square, and thus outlining of the general tendencies in the design of greenery in these spaces. Research shows that the process of redevelopment of urban markets most often results in a reduction in green space, regardless of its initial condition. In some cases, this phenomenon becomes radical, leading to the almost complete elimination of green spaces from the market square. We compared our findings with those of other studies on the remodelling and redevelopment of the city centres of Polish cities and referred to the literature on diagnosing the phenomenon dubbed as ‘concretosis’ (betonoza in Polish). We also discussed this tendency in the context of the revitalisation of city centres and the programming of functions that city market squares feature after remodelling, as well as the specificities of Polish law in terms of requirements in the planning and design of public spaces. This study’s subject matter also references the general tendencies in planning downtown public spaces that are often historic and which are highly distinct and attractive places in numerous cities and towns around the world.

1. Introduction

The planning and development of public green areas in cities is undoubtedly a key aspect of urban design and the contemporary transformation of the functio-spatial structure of urbanised areas, especially cities. This issue has been widely considered in the academic field, both in the realm of city planning theory and practice. In many model proposals of ideal and utopian cities that were developed in the 19th century, greenery was treated as a fundamental component of urban space, equal to buildings and other built structures [1,2,3,4,5]. Similarly, contemporary trends in city planning and transformation, including the concepts of the ‘eco-city’, ‘smart city’, ‘compact city’, and ‘15 min city’, place great emphasis on the necessary amount and appropriate form of green spaces in a sustainable urban structure [6,7,8,9,10], which, according to many researchers, is crucial in the face of ongoing climate change and increasing civilisational threats to the contemporary city [11,12,13]. Numerous studies have clearly demonstrated the multi-directional role of greenery in the city—it is impossible to eliminate or replace greenery with any artificially created system, regardless of a city’s geographical location, size, density, or population size [14,15,16]. The following functions of urban greenery have been identified as particularly important:

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Natural (biological): Urban greenery is an essential element of nature in the city, providing a desirable counterbalance to built-up space (especially in high-density areas), and when properly designed and landscaped, it is a biodiverse habitat for flora and fauna, providing conditions for different species to live, function, and interact in the city [17,18,19];

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Climatic (ecological): Structural elements of greenery play a key role in shaping a city’s microclimate (temperature, humidity, air purity, and flow), contribute to removing gaseous and particulate pollutants from the air, reduce noise, mitigate the effects of weather phenomena crises (droughts, heavy downpours, and strong winds), retain water, and actively participate in the natural water cycle [20,21,22,23,24];

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Spatial (structural and integrative): Public green spaces connected into continuous systems with water elements and features co-create a green–blue infrastructure that connects the different elements of the urban structure into a single whole and also effectively link the city to external areas [25,26,27,28];

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Compositional (scenic, landscape, and aesthetic): A properly formed urban greenery system can play a crucial role in the composition and image of an entire city structure, enhance its visual and landscape value, and also act as a source of specific aesthetic experiences for users of urban space [29,30,31,32,33];

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Providing health benefits: Humans, as biological organisms, are strongly connected to the natural environment and exhibit a universal need for constant contact with nature, which is an important factor in maintaining the physical and mental health and well-being of all urban space users and can also effectively support the convalescence and rehabilitation process [34,35,36,37,38];

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Social (psychological and cultural): Urban greenery positively influences the well-being of urban space users, and is seen as an important factor in shaping the cultural attractiveness of cities and defining the identity of urban space [39,40,41,42];

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Utilitarian (service-related): Publicly accessible urban green spaces can play an important functional role of local (neighbourhood-level) and wider (district-level and citywide) importance in terms of various functions, in particular leisure, recreation, sport, education, science, culture, entertainment, and tourism [43,44,45];

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Economic: The presence of urban green space influences the monetary value of neighbouring properties and can therefore be considered as a factor in the economic development of cities, but the quantity and quality of green space in a city is also related to the overall cost of maintenance and ongoing upkeep of the city, including incurring expenses for crisis prevention and recovery [46,47,48].

Even a cursory analysis of the spatial and functional structure of different cities supports the conclusion that urban greenery can form diverse systems and includes elements that are widely different in terms of essential characteristics, such as size, linkage presence, form, choice of plant species, composition and degree of landscaping, features, or use, but also in terms of the period of formation and the general method of building such systems in a city [49,50,51,52,53,54]. An urban space can feature large-scale natural forest complexes (for example, the 864 ha Bois de Boulogne, located in the 16th arrondissement of Paris), but also relatively small, intimate enclaves of greenery in the form of pocket parks inside residential areas [55,56,57,58,59]. Publicly accessible public greenery—parks, squares, waterside open spaces, as well as watercourses and reservoirs, which, together with greenery, form a city’s blue–green infrastructure—play a fundamental role in the structure of urban greenery areas [60,61,62]. Also important are the elements that form the landscaping of open street and square spaces: diverse formations of trees, shrubs, low vegetation, lawns, flower meadows, and water, but also plant-covered building facades and roofs [63,64,65].

There is a consensus among researchers, planners, and designers that contemporary urban redevelopment should consider not only the need to protect existing urban greenery stock, but also its successive expansion and integration into larger systems—which is seen to be a prerequisite for building a sustainable and eco-friendly city in which natural elements can effectively perform their inalienable functions. Under the current conditions of civilisation and climate, the ‘green city’ is therefore no longer a fashionable trend, but is becoming a necessary model. Researchers who investigate this issue analyse in detail the current methods of urban space design in different parts of the world, paying particular attention to the scale and character of the change in urban greening systems. Subbotina [66] identified the fundamental directions of structural and functional transformation in the green space system in Perm (Russia). Basińska and Spadło [67] considered this problem with the example of a group of fourteen cities in Poland—they examined the transformation of the urban greenery system in the transformation process of these cities, while identifying innovative solutions for the creation of a broadly defined blue–green infrastructure. The findings of similar studies were published by Kaczorowska [68]—for Gőtheborg (Sweden); Lawrence [69]—for London (UK); Kabisch [70]—for Berlin (Germany); Huang [71]—for Lengshuijiang (China); Namwinbown [72]—for cities in Ghana (West Africa); Bush [73]—for Melbourne (Australia); and Immergluck and Balan [74]—for Atlanta, Georgia (US).

At the same time, numerous studies show that, in the process of dynamic urbanisation of space, there may be a reduction in urban greenery spaces, especially within inner cities and local centres, where green areas are being successively eliminated through development densification. This problem is highlighted by Starczewski with team [75], who showed the effects of contemporary redevelopment of selected cities in Poland and Slovakia on the resulting form of the urban green system. Azhar and colleagues [76] analysed this issue in retrospect using the example of the city of Lahore, Pakistan. They found a significant decrease in the amount of urban green space per resident. Similar conclusions were drawn from research that Munyati and Drummond [77] carried out in the South African city of Mafikeng. Adhikari and colleagues [78] noted that the depletion of urban greenery stocks in the redevelopment process of South Asian cities consequently led to a significant deterioration of living conditions in these cities and threats to the health of their inhabitants. Wang [79], in a study on large cities in China, argued that the basic problem of a lack of urban greenery is not due to the quantitative scarcity of green spaces, but to the lack of their interconnection in a rationally constructed, integrated system that guarantees the preservation of the natural and ecological functions. The author points out that even small enclaves of greenery can be of significant importance for the creation and functioning of green systems in the city, provided that their continuity and necessary quality are maintained.

Some researchers analysed trends and methods of green space design in the context of the revitalisation of decayed urban areas, especially post-industrial areas. De Sousa [80] showed that Toronto is a North American city that has significantly increased its stock of public green space through a consistent policy of developing brownfields into mixed-use urban parks. Zaykova [81] presented a similar concept for Moscow. Kazimierczak [82] focused his research on the revitalisation of post-industrial sites in Lyon (France) and Manchester (UK)—he highlighted the features that significantly differentiate these cities, but at the same time in both cases pointed to multi-functional landscaped greenery as an important element for bringing decayed urban areas out of crisis. Sadowski and Sumoruk [83] analysed the revitalisation of post-industrial complexes and sites in Łódź (Poland) in a landscape and ecological context, noting the key role of urban greenery in this process.

In Poland, but also in other countries in the wider region, the last two decades have been a period of intensive urban redevelopment, especially in historic city and town centres. This redevelopment was most often conducted under the banner of ‘revitalisation of public spaces’—streets and squares, including market squares, as well as complexes of historic buildings and urban greenery [84,85,86,87,88]. This is particularly the case in small towns, where local governments, thanks to external financial support, have successfully redeveloped, technically upgraded, and applied adaptive reuse to previously decayed public spaces [89,90,91,92]. As can be seen from the discussion so far, the research problem under consideration is multi-faceted and interdisciplinary. The research background outlined demonstrates the versatile, irreplaceable role of greenery in urban spaces and highlights contemporary trends in city development, where greenery plays a key role. At the same time, the authors note a clear discrepancy between theoretical considerations of this issue and the practical actions and observable effects of contemporary urban redevelopment in Poland’s unique context. The authors argue that the recent redevelopment of urban squares has led to significant changes in the development of urban greenery, with a clear tendency to reduce its resources and limit green spaces within rebuilt squares. The main goal of the presented research is to determine the scale and extent of this phenomenon in relation to the selected region. The specificity of this research lies in two fundamental aspects:

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The scope of this study covers one region in Poland (Lesser Poland), including a detailed analysis of a total of 24 cities and towns, all of which are small (in the context of this study: up to 20,000 inhabitants) or at most medium-sized (up to 50,000 inhabitants), and therefore belong to size groups relatively rarely considered in other analogous studies;

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The analysis of trends in the planning and design of green areas in urban redevelopment is narrowed down to market squares—public spaces with a fundamental spatial, functional, and social significance in the entire urban structure of each of the cities and towns under analysis.

For this reason, this study can make an important and desired contribution to the state of research and knowledge in the field of green space design methods in contemporary urban redevelopment and the direct effects of this transformation on the quantity and quality of urban green spaces. Through their research, the authors draw attention to the general tendency to shape urban greenery in the process of redevelopment of historic city squares in the context of the commonly articulated need to balance urban development and the fundamental role of greenery. This subject can be considered important and topical in view of the processes and phenomena observed: the ongoing redevelopment of many cities of all sizes and the associated changes in living conditions in urbanised spaces, climate change and the urgent need to adapt to these changes, as well as the ever-increasing threats to cities and their inhabitants, such as violent weather events, water scarcity, environmental destruction and contamination, lack of contact with nature, and threats to physical and mental health. Although this study is set in specific locational contexts, its findings contribute to a better understanding of urban processes and problems in much broader theoretical and practical terms. The research output presented can also be used as interesting comparative material for analogous studies of other cities and towns, including those outside of Poland.

2. Objective and Scope of the Research

This paper presents the results of a study of the process of contemporary redevelopment of town squares—main public spaces of historical origin, which have recently undergone dynamic transformations as part of widely conducted ‘urban space revitalisation’. The main objective of this study was to identify trends and principles of green space planning and design in this process, in particular to find an answer to the question of whether, and if so, then to what extent, the recent redevelopment of a given town square has resulted in a quantitative change in green space, which is part of the resulting final development of this space.

Specifically, the investigation determined the quantitative changes in such areas, expressed by the ratio (percentage) of biologically vital areas to the total area of the squares. In territorial terms, the research covered the entire region of Lesser Poland (southern Poland), defined by the administrative borders of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship with Krakow as the main city. The choice of the Małopolska Voivodeship as the research area is supported by the high degree of urbanisation of this area, i.e., a relatively large number of medium-sized and small towns, a significant part of which have recently experienced the reconstruction of the market square, which is the main public space. The initial phase of the research work included the identification of the scale of the contemporary redevelopment of town squares in the analysed region, i.e., the identification of all towns in Lesser Poland in which, over the last dozen or so years, there has been a significant redevelopment of a town square—a central public space with historical features, shaped in the form of an urban interior. At the same time, cities and towns were identified which, despite having been granted city rights, did not have markets with such characteristics and forms, which corresponded to stating that no significant central fabric redevelopment had been conducted there. The results of the initial analysis are shown in Figure 1.

Of all the 64 cities and towns in Lesser Poland, as many as 24, i.e., more than a third, have had their town squares significantly redeveloped in recent years. These are (in alphabetical order) Bochnia, Brzesko, Gorlice, Grybów, Kęty, Krzeszowice, Książ Wielki, Limanowa, Mszana Dolna, Muszyna, Myślenice, Nowe Brzesko, Nowy Targ, Olkusz, Oświęcim, Proszowice, Skawina, Szczucin, Trzebinia, Wadowice, Wieliczka, Wojnicz, Zakliczyn, and Żabno. These are cities of varying sizes: 7 medium-sized towns (with a population of 20,000–40,000)—Bochnia, Gorlice, Nowy Targ, Olkusz, Oświęcim, Skawina, and Wieliczka—and 17 small towns (with a population below 20,000), including the smallest town, Książ Wielki, with a population of less than 1000. In terms of administrative rank, 11 towns are county seats, while the remaining 13 are municipalities. The redevelopment of town squares in the cities selected for this study was found to have taken place in the years 2009–2022, with a clear majority (15 cities) undergoing the process between 2011 and 2014. In only one case (Wojnicz), the redevelopment of the market square is still underway as of writing this paper, with planned completion in the second half of 2024. A list of cities selected for further research, together with their general characteristics, is included in

Table 1. Summary and general characteristics of the cities under study (original work).

Item No.	City	Sub-Region (County)	City Size		Population, Thousands *	Administrative Rank	Square Remodelling Completion Date
			Medium	Small
1.	Bochnia	Bochnia	■		28.7	county	2022
2.	Brzesko	Brzesko		■	16.0	county	2011
3.	Gorlice	Gorlice	■		25.8	county	2013
4.	Grybów	Nowy Sącz		■	5.9	municipal	2012
5.	Kęty	Wadowice		■	17.9	municipal	2012
6.	Krzeszowice	Krakow		■	9.8	municipal	2012
7.	Książ Wielki	Miechów		■	0.8	municipal	2018
8.	Limanowa	Limanowa		■	14.5	county	2020
9.	Mszana Dolna	Limanowa		■	7.8	municipal	2012
10.	Muszyna	Nowy Sącz		■	4.5	municipal	2021
11.	Myślenice	Myślenice		■	17.8	county	2021
12.	Nowe Brzesko	Proszowice		■	1.6	municipal	2011
13.	Nowy Targ	Nowy Targ	■		33.1	county	2012
14.	Olkusz	Olkusz	■		32.7	county	2013
15.	Oświęcim	Oświęcim	■		36.0	county	2014
16.	Proszowice	Proszowice		■	5.8	county	2022
17.	Skawina	Krakow	■		24.1	municipal	2013
18.	Szczucin	Dąbrowa		■	4.1	municipal	2012
19.	Trzebinia	Chrzanów		■	18.7	municipal	2011
20.	Wadowice	Wadowice		■	17.5	county	2013
21.	Wieliczka	Wieliczka	■		27.4	county	2009
22.	Wojnicz	Tarnów		■	3.1	municipal	2024 **
23.	Zakliczyn	Tarnów		■	1.6	municipal	2022
24.	Żabno	Tarnów		■	4.1	municipal	2011

* as per data from 31 December 2022. ** planned completion date of ongoing redevelopment.

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3. Methodology

The essence of research into the trends and principles of green space design in the process of contemporary urban town square redevelopment is a comparative analysis of how these spaces are developed. For each of the 24 cities analysed, a set of two diagrams showing the size and distribution of green spaces within their markets’ spatial layouts were developed on the basis of current and archival satellite imagery—the first diagram was for the state BEFORE each square’s redevelopment (1), and the second for the state AFTER the redevelopment was fully completed (2). In the case of Wojnicz, where the redevelopment of the market square was still not completed at the time of the field research, the scheme for the target development of the main square was developed on the basis of the approved design documentation.

The research involved a detailed comparative analysis using GIS and CAD tools. First, a set of two satellite images (high-resolution raster images) was prepared for each of the analysed market squares, obtained from a publicly available database (geoportal.gov.pl, accessed February and September 2024)—the first showing the market’s development prior to the most recent reconstruction (date of photo: March 2009—for market squares in Gorlice, Grybów, Kęty, Krzeszowice, Książ Wielki, Mszana Dolna, Nowe Brzesko, Nowy Targ, Olkusz, Oświęcim, Skawina, Szczucin, Trzebinia, and Żabno—and May 2018—for market squares in Limanowa, Muszyna, Myślenice, Proszowice, Wieliczka, Wojnicz, and Zakliczyn), and the second after its completion (date of photo: September 2024—for all analysed market squares). Next, both images from each set were rasterized in CAD software, which allowed for the precise identification of biologically active areas within the market squares and the mathematical calculation of its volume (rounded up to the nearest ten). To confirm and verify the obtained results, a series of in situ field studies was conducted, the main goal of which was to verify the consistency of the existing state with the image obtained from previously digitised images. These studies utilised maps from the nationwide database (geoportal.gov.pl) and digital spatial information systems (MSIP) in those cities with such systems. Moreover, in each of the analysed markets, detailed photographic documentation was prepared to illustrate the current state of these spaces. The results of the analysis are presented collectively in Figure 2 (2A—cities numbered 1–12; 2B—cities numbered 13–24).

The geometric shape of the square spaces was determined using spatial criteria, namely the boundaries of their respective urban interiors as determined by the frontage lines and frontal facades of buildings and other structures located along the market’s walls. It should be noted that a market’s boundaries as determined via this method did not always overlap with property lines. In the case of town squares adjoined by undeveloped but fenced off open space, the market boundary was assumed at the fence line. Within the boundaries thus adopted, the total area (A_S) was measured for each square. It is worth mentioning that in all the cities under study, town squares were a central part of the historic urban layout and featured a compact building structure, with a form characteristic of the vast majority of towns founded and developed in this part of Europe.

The authors considered any ‘biologically vital area’, as defined in Polish law as ‘an area with a surface arranged in such a way as to allow the natural vegetation of plants and retention of rainwater, as well as 50% of the surface of terraces and flat roofs with such a surface and other surfaces ensuring natural vegetation of plants, with a surface area of not less than 10 m², and surface water in this area’ (based on the current Polish Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure, 12 April 2002, on the technical requirements to be met by buildings and their placement, Dz. U. 2022, item 1225, as amended). Following the above definition, green areas included all grassy surfaces, surfaces permeable to water and at the same time landscaped with diverse forms of greenery (flowerbeds, flower meadows, shrub formations, etc.), as well as unpaved fragments around the trunks of trees growing on a square—regardless of the surface area of these fragments. The area of fountains and water features was omitted considering that these elements are built structures and do not meet the definition of biologically vital areas, even though in a formal sense they may be treated as surface water. For each of the states considered (1—the state prior to redevelopment and 2—the state after redevelopment), the total biologically vital area within each square was determined using the following formulas, respectively:

$${\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BA}\left(1\right)}= {{\displaystyle \sum }}_{\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BAi}\left(1\right)} \mathrm{and} {\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BA}\left(2\right)}= {{\displaystyle \sum }}_{\mathrm{i}}{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BAi}\left(2\right)}$$

where A_BAi are the sub-areas of the individual sections of a square’s area that have been developed as biologically vital areas. Due to possible measurement error, these areas were determined and given in rounded decimals. In the following steps, the difference in size of these areas (formula (1): ΔA_BA = A_BA(2) − A_BA(1)) was calculated and the change in this area in percentage terms was determined. Subsequently, the percentage (share) of the biologically vital area in the total square area was determined for the square’s development states 1 and 2, according to the formulas:

$${\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{A}\left(1\right)}={\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BA}\left(1\right)}}{{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{S}}}}·100\% \mathrm{and} {\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{A}\left(2\right)}={\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{BA}\left(2\right)}}{{\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{S}}}}·100\%$$

Based on the calculated values of the indicators for state 1 and state 2, the change in this indicator (in percentage points) as a result of the square’s redevelopment (formula (2): ΔI_A = I_A(2) − I_A(1)) was determined.

4. Results

Seven parameters were identified for each of the town squares analysed, which were seen as key to identifying trends in the design of green spaces in the contemporary redevelopment of these spaces. These were as follows:

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Total area of a town square (A_S)—identical for the state before the redevelopment (1) and the state after the completion of this redevelopment (2);

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Size of biologically vital area in state 1—A_BA(1);

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Size of biologically vital area in state 2—A_BA(1);

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The change in the size of the biologically vital area resulting from the redevelopment of the square—ΔA_BA, given in quantity (m²) and percentage (%);

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Biologically vital area to total town square area ratio for state 1—I_A(1), expressed in %;

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Biologically vital area to total town square area ratio for state 2—I_A(1), expressed in %;

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Change in the ratio of the biologically vital area as a result of town square redevelopment—ΔI_A, given in percentage points (p. %).

These parameters have been summarised collectively for all the squares analysed in

Table 2. Summary of quantitative data and indicators related to the biologically vital area within the analysed squares, taking into account the changes caused by their redevelopment (original work).

Item No.	City	Square Area AS, m2 * **	Biologically Vital Area Within the Square, m2 *		Change in Biologically Vital Area Value, ΔABA = ABA(2) − ABA(1) (Formula (1))		Biologically Vital Area to Square Area Ratio, %		Change in the Biologically Vital Area Ratio, p. % ΔIA = IA(2) − IA(1) (Formula (2))
			BEFORE the Remodel ABA(1)	AFTER the Remodel ABA(2)	In Quantitative Terms, m2	In Percentage Terms, %	BEFORE the Remodel IA(1)	AFTER the Remodel IA(2)
1.	Bochnia	9140	680	270	−410	−60.3	7.4	3.0	−4.4
2.	Brzesko	8250	3340	540	−2800	−83.8	40.5	6.5	−34.0
3.	Gorlice	8590	1110	480	−630	−56.8	12.9	5.6	−7.3
4.	Grybów	7950	1390	630	−760	−54.7	17.5	7.9	−9.6
5.	Kęty	9780	2630	2070	−560	−21.3	26.9	21.2	−5.7
6.	Krzeszowice	13,100	2300	2020	−280	−12.2	17.6	15.4	−2.2
7.	Książ Wielki	5140	380	330	−50	−13.2	7.4	6.4	−1.0
8.	Limanowa	13,300	860	2150	+1290	+150.0	6.5	16.2	+9.7
9.	Mszana Dolna	3620	170	260	+90	+52.9	4.7	7.2	+2.5
10.	Muszyna	10,800	1830	1140	−690	−37.7	16.9	10.6	−6.3
11.	Myślenice	11,350	1190	1400	+210	+17.6	10.5	12.3	+2.3
12.	Nowe Brzesko	5400	550	160	−390	−70.1	10.2	3.0	−7.2
13.	Nowy Targ	16,430	3050	2090	−960	−31.5	18.6	12.7	−5.9
14.	Olkusz	12,750	1530	430	−1100	−71.9	12.0	3.4	−8.6
15.	Oświęcim	7600	950	350	−600	−63.2	12.5	4.6	−7.9
16.	Proszowice	9380	820	1280	+460	+56.1	8.7	13.6	+4.9
17.	Skawina	11,100	3580	1770	−1810	−50.6	32.3	15.9	−16.4
18.	Szczucin	18,310	7420	5520	−1900	−25.6	40.5	30.2	−10.3
19.	Trzebinia	10,490	2970	900	−2070	−69.7	28.3	8.6	−19.7
20.	Wadowice	8410	1300	850	−450	−34.6	15.5	10.1	−5.4
21.	Wieliczka	5540	500	540	+40	+8.0	9.0	9.1	+0.1
22.	Wojnicz	12,650	2610	2300	−310	−11.9	20.6	18.2	−2.4
23.	Zakliczyn	17,200	920	40	−880	−95.7	5.3	0.2	−5.1
24.	Żabno	13,620	4080	3120	−960	−23.5	30.0	22.9	−7.1

* rounded up to the nearest ten. ** the area of the square was determined within the boundaries defined by the spatial layout of the delimiting development.

.

The data in Table 2 clearly shows that only in the case of five of the towns, i.e., Limanowa, Mszana Dolna, Myślenice, Proszowice, and Wieliczka, did the total biologically vital area within the market square increase as a result of the redevelopment (rows highlighted in green in the table). Within this group, the largest quantitative increase occurred in Limanowa—by 1290 m² (from 860 m² before the redevelopment to 2150 m² after the redevelopment)—and the smallest in the Wieliczka market square—by only 40 m² (from 500 m² to 540 m²)—resulting in an increase of 150.0% and 8.0%, respectively. In all of the other 19 cities, the area of urban green space within the markets decreased as a result of their modern redevelopments. The observed scale of this change varied widely. In quantitative terms, the largest decrease in green areas was found in Brzesko—by 2800 m² (from 3340 m² to 540 m²)—as well as in Trzebinia (green area decrease of 2070 m²), Szczucin (−1900 m²), and Skawina (−1810 m²). In percentage terms, the largest decrease in the biologically vital area was recorded for the square in Zakliczyn—by as much as 95.7% (from 920 m² to just 40 m²)—Brzesko (−83.8%), Olkusz (−71.9%), and Trzebinia (−69.7%). The data on the biologically vital area ratios shows a wide variation in the proportion of green areas in the total area of the markets—both in the pre- and post-redevelopment states. It is noteworthy that some of the town squares, e.g., in Brzesko and Szczucin, were town squares with a relatively high proportion of green space before the redevelopment commenced, exceeding 40% in both cases. Others, such as those in Limanowa, Mszana Dolna, or Zakliczyn, were originally spaces generally devoid of green areas, whose share of the square area reached only 5%. The initial condition for the redevelopment process of the squares studied therefore varied significantly in terms of the initial biologically vital area. In a small group of squares where there was an increase in biologically vital area, the rate of increase in the biologically vital area ranged from +0.1 p.% (for Wieliczka—an increase from 9.0% to 9.1%) to +9.7 p.% (for Limanowa—an increase from 6.5% to 16.2%). Analysing the group of squares for which a post-redevelopment decrease in the ratio of the biologically vital area was recorded, it can be concluded that the change ranged from −1.0 p.% (for Książ Wielki—a decrease from 7.4% to 6.4%) to −34.0 p.% (for Brzesko—a decrease from 40.5% to only 6.5%).

Figure 3 shows the percentage change in the size of the biologically active area in the total market area (Chart A, developed using Formula (1)) in correlation with the change in the ratio of the biologically active area (Chart B, developed using Formula (2)) for all the markets analysed, ranked according to the scale of these changes (from the cities with the largest increase in green space to those recording the largest decrease in green space).

The results concerning the quantitative change in the biologically vital area and the percentage change in the biologically vital area ratio show a clear trend in the design and planning of green areas in the contemporary redevelopment of the markets of the towns of Lesser Poland. Our data analysis clearly demonstrates that redevelopments typically lead to a decrease in the amount of greenery—regardless of its initial amount. In some cases, this phenomenon becomes extreme, leading to the almost complete elimination of green spaces from a square—a public square is a space of immense functional, compositional, and historical significance for the entire urban structure and with an unquestionable social role.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The trend of greenery planning in the process of contemporary town square redevelopment was determined via an analysis of a relatively large group of cases, but only in relation to one region of Southern Poland—Lesser Poland. A review of the current state of research makes it possible to assume that the problem of reducing the amount of green areas within urban public spaces is much broader and occurs throughout the country. This argument is supported by the findings of, among others, Jaszczak and colleagues [93]. This study analysed the transformation of the squares of four towns in the Warmian–Masurian region of Poland, comparing their current form with the state of development in the 1970s. Jaszczak et al. found that, in the case of some market squares, their contemporary redevelopment projects ignored or marginalised environmental and ecological aspects, resulting, among other things, in a diminished role for greenery and a visible decrease in biologically vital area in these spaces. Kozak and Kimic [94] came to analogous conclusions. In turn, Dymek and Jóźwik [95], in a study on the planning and design of the town squares of cities in the Lublin region in Poland, stated that ‘the analysis of changes in the share of areas occupied by greenery and paved surfaces showed a trend towards increasing the share of paved areas with simultaneous abandonment of greenery’. This phenomenon is commonly observed in Poland and has been termed ‘betonoza’ (‘concretosis’). Mencwel [96] presents a broader view of this subject and uses multiple examples to discuss the degradation of greenery in the contemporary redevelopment of the public spaces of Polish cities, pointing to the highly destructive impact this process has on the entire urban structure and local communities. It can therefore be concluded that the tendency observed in Polish cities to plan greenery in the contemporary redevelopment of market squares does not fit into the trend of sustainable, environmentally friendly design of urban space.

At the same time, many researchers emphasise that the redevelopment of important public spaces in cities, especially town squares, is performed as part of the broader revitalisation of urban areas, including historic inner cities. This is confirmed, among other things, by the results of studies by Ramlee and colleagues [97], Gale [98], or Grodach and Ehrenfeucht [99], and in relation to cities in Poland and other central and eastern European countries by Zagroba [100], Kostov [101], and Jaszczak [102]. On the basis of this research, we can conclude that transforming urban structures while reducing the amount of green areas is contrary to the idea of revitalisation, because of the fundamental, multi-faceted importance of greenery in creating the attractiveness of urban space and its social activation. It can be assumed that, in the face of negative phenomena caused by climate change, such as the occurrence of the urban heat island effect, violent weather phenomena, and water scarcity, the reduction in the amount of biologically vital areas and the depletion of greenery in public spaces will result in a reduction in the intensity, and in extreme cases the complete disappearance, of urban life in these spaces.

The current state of crisis of many town squares in Poland, referred to as the phenomenon of ‘concretosis’, is largely due to the misplaced priorities of planning and designing these spaces in the process of their redevelopment, most often carried out under the slogan of ‘revitalisation’ and therefore ‘restoration of vitality’. The stated and oft highlighted objective of such actions is the broadly understood restructuring and enhancement of aesthetic and technical quality, as well as the scope and variety of furnishing public spaces suitably for their planned use. In revitalisation programmes and projects, natural, ecological, and environmental aspects tend to take a proverbial back seat [103]. The findings of this study clearly indicate that the priority activities related to the development of public spaces in the centres of small cities and towns include the remodelling of the surfaces of streets and squares, which in many of the cases under study consists of replacing grassy surfaces (i.e., biologically vital and permeable areas) with impervious materials (natural or artificial)—such as stone, concrete, and plastics—as well as radical interference in the structure of greenery—in particular the cutting down of existing trees and shrubs.

In the course of the analysis presented, the functions of the town squares under study were identified and the dominant and supplementary forms of use of these spaces were determined (

Table 3. Post-remodel functions of the squares (original work).

Function of the Square (Square Area)	City
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19	20	21	22	23	24
	Bochnia	Brzesko	Gorlice	Grybów	Kęty	Krzeszowice	Książ Wielki	Limanowa	Mszana Dolna	Muszyna	Myślenice	Nowe Brzesko	Nowy Targ	Olkusz	Oświęcim	Proszowice	Skawina	Szczucin	Trzebinia	Wadowice	Wieliczka	Wojnicz	Zakliczyn	Żabno
Vehicular traffic 1	■	□	□	■	■	□	■	■	■	■		■	□	□	□	□	■	■	□	■		■	■	■
Pedestrian traffic	■	■	■	□	■	□	□	■	□	■	■	■	■	■	■	□	□	□	□	■	□	■	■	□
Car parks 2	□	□		■	□	□	□	□	■		□	■	□	■	■	■	□	□			□	□	■	■
Rest and recreation	■	■	■	□	□	■	□	■	□	□	■	□	■	□	□	□	■	■	■	■	■	■		■
Commerce and services 3			□			□				□			■							□		□	□
Gastronomy 4	□	□	□	□		□				□	□		□	□			□			□	■	□	□
Culture and entertainment 5	□	□	□		□	□		□	□	□	□		□	□	□	□	□		□	□	□	□
Tourism and education 6	□						■			□			■	■			□			□	□	□
Formal use 7	■	□	■	□	■	□	■			■	■		□	■	□	□			□	■	□	□
Administration 8										■			■										■
Other functions 9						□							□		□				□
■ dominant function □ supplementary function	1 major circulation and/or transport paths/routes were delineated through the plan; 2 public parking spaces on the surface of the site; 3 temporary commercial activity (markets) and presence of permanent commercial structures; 4 café and restaurant terraces; 5 organisation of regular and occasional mass events, cultural events, concerts, shows, etc.; 6 presence of a tourist information centre or museums, information boards, exhibits, etc., dedicated to tourists; 7 celebration of official state and religious ceremonies; 8 presence of buildings housing the municipal administration or other offices; 9 postal services, banking, insurance, taxi ranks, municipal toilets, etc.

).

A synthesis of the results of this research indicates that one of the aims of the contemporary redevelopment of main town squares is to give them a recreational and leisure function, which is reflected in the way in which their paving is designed and finished, as well as in the furnishing of the square with facilities and features. Paradoxically, such markets simultaneously have a reduced amount of green space, which, according to the authors of this study, determines the quality of recreation and leisure. On the other hand, the vast majority of the squares investigated feature an important transport and circulation function—not only spaces linking the essential directions of pedestrian traffic, but also road junctions and intersections and publicly accessible surface car parks. The prioritisation of traffic and circulation in the redevelopment of town squares prompts the replacement of green areas with paved surfaces suitable for vehicle and pedestrian traffic and vehicle parking. A similar effect can be achieved by directing the redevelopment of a square into a formal space, developed for celebrations, mass events, and trade, which is often justified by the historical role of such spaces. Referring directly to Wang’s research [79], which argues that quality, not quantity, is more important in shaping urban greenery, one can agree that the contemporary reconstruction of Polish city squares must consider a variety of flooring methods, including that which is hardened and devoid of greenery. However, research results show that in extreme cases, such as Zakliczyn, Brzesko, Olkusz, and Nowe Brzesko, the reduction in biologically active surface area in these cities’ squares exceeds 70%. Such a radical reduction in greenery causes these squares to lose their significance in the urban natural system and may lead to its disintegration.

It is also worth transferring the discussion of this problem to the legal regulations in force in Poland, which regulate the principles of the design of public spaces. One of the provisions of the recently amended regulation states ‘on plots intended for a publicly accessible square with an area of more than 1000 m², at least 20% of its area shall be arranged as biologically vital area (…)’ [104]. It is worth noting that only in three of the cases examined did the ratio of the biologically vital area after the redevelopment of the market exceed 20%. The legal provision cited above has only been in force since April 2024 and, for obvious reasons, cannot apply retroactively to the design and execution of the redevelopment itself of any of the squares investigated in this study, although each of them is certainly a publicly accessible square of more than 1000 m². It can be assumed that this provision was introduced into the current legal system as a reaction to the common phenomenon of the reduction in green areas in redeveloped public spaces, especially in town squares, in favour of water-impermeable paved surfaces or other development elements that do not generate biologically vital areas. At the same time, the current Polish Planning and Spatial Development Act [105], after its 2023 amendment, set out standards for accessibility to public green spaces for city residents. It appears that town squares, as the main squares of a city, could play an important role in this respect, provided that the ratio of biologically vital area is maintained at a sufficiently high level. It can therefore be assumed that the recently amended legal regulations will require greater attention to be paid to the versatile role of greenery in the redevelopment of urban public spaces, including market squares. It should also be emphasised that urban spatial planning policies must simultaneously consider the individual characteristics and functions of the spaces being rebuilt, including historical conditions, compositional relationships, and their expected social and functional roles.