Preventing Disasters Before They Happen: Lessons from Successful Disaster Risk Reduction in Southern Africa

Abstract

Disaster headlines often underscore devastation and loss while overlooking success stories where proactive disaster risk reduction (DRRM) measures have averted catastrophe, saved lives, and reduced economic damage. This study addresses the gap in documentation and analysis of DRRM success stories in Africa, particularly within the Southern African Development Community (SADC), arguing that the absence of such narratives hampers a shift from reactive to proactive disaster risk governance. The research aims to extract critical lessons from success stories for enhancing future preparedness and response frameworks. A qualitative research design was employed, integrating document analysis, expert interviews, field observations, and practitioner workshops. Data was triangulated from diverse sources, including national disaster management agency reports (e.g., South Africa’s NDMC, Botswana’s NDMO, Mozambique’s INGC), peer-reviewed literature, UNDRR reports, SADC policy documents, and first-hand experiences from the authors’ consultancy work in the African Union’s biennial DRRM reporting processes. Case studies examined include Mozambique’s response to Cyclone Idai in 2019, South Africa’s drought and flood risk governance (e.g., the 2023 floods in Eastern and Western Cape), and Malawi’s flood resilience programs. Findings reveal that successful DRRM outcomes are driven by a combination of anticipatory governance, community-based preparedness, integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKSs), and investment in infrastructure and ecosystem-based adaptation. These cases demonstrate that locally embedded, yet scientifically informed, interventions enhance resilience and reduce disaster impacts. The study underscores the relevance of theoretical frameworks such as resilience theory, narrative theory, and social learning in interpreting how success stories contribute to institutional memory and adaptive capacity. Policy recommendations emphasize the need for institutionalizing success-story documentation in national DRRM frameworks, scaling up community engagement in risk governance, and fostering regional knowledge-sharing platforms within the SADC. Furthermore, the paper advocates for making DRRM success stories more visible and actionable to transition toward more anticipatory, inclusive, and effective disaster risk management systems.

1. Introduction

Natural hazards such as floods, droughts, cyclones, pandemics, and wildfires continue to pose escalating threats to communities globally. Africa, in particular, faces heightened vulnerability due to the interplay of climate variability, socio-economic fragility, and limited adaptive capacity [1,2]. While disasters often dominate headlines, the successes of disaster prevention and risk reduction remain underreported and underutilised in policy and practice. Yet these successes are critical in demonstrating the value of proactive interventions. Current conceptualisations of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) have evolved beyond reactive emergency response models. DRRM refers to systematic efforts to analyse and reduce the causal factors of disasters by minimising exposure to hazards, reducing vulnerability, and enhancing preparedness [2,3,4]. DRRM encompasses the application of policies, strategies, and practices to prevent new risks, reduce existing ones, and manage residual risk, thereby strengthening resilience [4]. Hazards themselves, whether natural, technological, or biological, only become disasters when they intersect with conditions of vulnerability and insufficient coping capacity [3,4,5,6].

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) provides a comprehensive global blueprint for reducing disaster risk and losses, encompassing a wide range of natural and human-induced hazards. Within this context, it recognizes climate change as a key driver of disaster risk” [5,6]. These priorities underscore the importance of transitioning from crisis response to prevention and risk-informed development.

This article explores selected success stories of proactive DRRM in Southern Africa to highlight the potential of locally led context-specific strategies in mitigating disaster impacts. When showcasing cases where early action, community engagement, and knowledge-sharing have yielded measurable outcomes, the study contributes to evidence-based DRRM practice. The analysis also draws on social learning and communication theories to illustrate how sharing positive outcomes can foster motivation, improve institutional learning, and strengthen resilience across scales.

Problem Statement

While success stories of DRRM do exist across Southern Africa, demonstrating the effectiveness of locally grounded, community-led approaches, they remain underutilised in shaping broader disaster management strategies. Instead, many policies and interventions continue to rely heavily on externally driven, Western-oriented models that often overlook local realities, cultural context, and Indigenous knowledge systems. This results in a disconnect between proven local practices and formal disaster risk governance, undermining the sustainability and relevance of preparedness efforts. There is a critical need to elevate and integrate these Southern African success stories into policy and practice to foster more context-appropriate, resilient, and inclusive disaster risk management frameworks.

The key research question addresses how locally driven DRRM strategies in Southern Africa have contributed to successful outcomes, and why these successes are not widely applied or scaled to highlight cases where preventative actions have averted large-scale disasters, thereby demonstrating the value of strategic interventions and enhancing future disaster preparedness and response frameworks.

2. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

This section establishes the theoretical and conceptual foundations for analysing disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) in Southern Africa. It synthesizes key literature to define core concepts, including the study’s approach to defining “success stories,” and presents the theories that underpin our analysis. This framework provides the lens through which the subsequent case studies are examined and the research questions are addressed.

2.1. Success Stories in Ancient Time and Space

Ancient civilizations demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in disaster risk management, implementing strategies that mitigated the effects of natural hazards and laid the foundations for modern approaches. In Mesopotamia, advanced irrigation and flood control infrastructure dating back to 3000 Before the Common Era enabled the redirection of seasonal floodwaters from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, ensuring agricultural stability and urban resilience [7]. The construction of levees, canals, and reservoirs prevented widespread destruction, allowing Mesopotamian civilizations, such as the Sumerians and Babylonians, to flourish despite the unpredictability of river flooding. Similarly, the ancient Egyptians harnessed the annual inundation of the Nile River through an intricate system of canals, dikes, and reservoirs, regulating water supply and minimizing flood-related disasters [8]. When predictive techniques and efficient water storage mechanisms were developed, they sustained a stable agricultural economy for millennia, exemplifying an early adaptation to hydrological variability [9]. Their ability to manage the Nile’s cycles ensured food security and economic prosperity, a principle still relevant in contemporary flood management.

In earthquake-prone regions such as ancient Greece, structural innovations emerged to enhance resilience. Greek architects employed flexible materials and seismic-resistant designs, notably in the Parthenon and other monumental structures, which utilized column-based constructions that absorbed tremors and reduced structural failure [10]. Despite lacking predictive tools, these engineering techniques minimized earthquake damage and allowed for the longevity of critical public buildings [11]. The Roman Empire, renowned for its extensive urban planning, integrated sophisticated infrastructure to mitigate disaster risks. Aqueducts and sewage systems not only provided sanitation and clean water but also reduced vulnerability to disease outbreaks and urban flooding [12]. The Romans also developed rapid emergency response mechanisms, utilizing their vast road networks to mobilize resources efficiently during crises, which enhanced their capacity to recover from natural disasters [13].

The Inca civilization, thriving in the seismically active Andean region, pioneered earthquake-resistant masonry techniques. Their use of ashlar masonry, where precisely cut stones fit together without mortar, enabled structures to endure seismic activity for centuries [14]. Additionally, their extensive agricultural terraces and irrigation systems optimized water distribution and reduced soil erosion, ensuring food production stability despite extreme climatic conditions.

Ancient African civilizations demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in disaster risk management, developing strategies that mitigated environmental challenges and ensured resilience. The Nubians, inhabiting the Nile Valley in present-day Sudan and southern Egypt, implemented advanced water management systems to mitigate the risks of flooding and drought. Through the construction of underground water channels, known as qanats, they effectively extracted and distributed groundwater in arid regions, ensuring a stable water supply for agriculture and sustaining the Kushite Kingdom for centuries [15]. Further south, the people of Great Zimbabwe, a civilization that thrived between the 11th and 15th centuries, developed sophisticated water conservation techniques. They constructed stone terraces and channels to control rainwater runoff and prevent soil erosion, while reservoirs stored water for dry periods, enhancing agricultural sustainability in a region characterized by variable rainfall [16]. Similarly, the Aksumite Empire, which flourished between the 1st and 7th centuries in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, implemented terracing and irrigation systems to combat soil erosion and enhance food production. These techniques not only reduced the impact of heavy rainfall but also ensured that water was retained for agricultural use during drier seasons, securing food production and strengthening trade networks [17].

In West Africa, medieval Sahelian cities such as Timbuktu and Djenné exemplified sophisticated environmental adaptation through urban design. In Djenné, elevated mud-brick structures and an intricate canal system effectively managed seasonal flooding from the Niger River, safeguarding settlements and enabling continued habitation within the floodplain [18,19]. These architectural innovations not only demonstrated engineering ingenuity but also reflected a deep awareness of hydrological cycles and risk mitigation rooted in indigenous environmental knowledge systems. Similarly, in the Atlas Mountains of North Africa, Berber communities devised foggaras, an ingenious fog-harvesting system that captured atmospheric moisture and channelled it into subterranean reservoirs. This technique ensured a reliable water supply in one of the world’s most arid regions, illustrating an early and highly localized approach to climate adaptation [20]. These practices reveal that even in extreme environments, African societies engineered sustainable solutions grounded in ecological knowledge and community-based innovation.

Further south, the Yoruba civilization in present-day Nigeria integrated disaster risk management into urban planning. In Ile-Ife, moats and embankments were constructed not only to control flooding during heavy rains but also to serve as defensive fortifications. These multifunctional structures highlight how infrastructure was designed with layered purposes combining resilience, protection, and strategic governance [21,22]. As recent studies confirm, traditional African urban systems often reveal an implicit logic of resilience long before such language entered modern policy discourse [23]. Taken together, the adaptive strategies of these ancient African societies reflect a profound understanding of environmental dynamics and proactive risk reduction. Their approaches to flood control, water conservation, and sustainable agriculture fostered long-term resilience, much of which remains relevant today. These historical examples underscore the ingenuity of traditional knowledge systems in managing disaster risks, often without the benefit of modern scientific tools [24]. Yet, their legacy continues to inform contemporary efforts in climate adaptation and disaster risk reduction [1].

However, despite centuries of proven indigenous resilience and growing global investment in disaster management, many African regions still experience significant losses due to inadequate preparedness and persistent neglect of prevention. Aitsi-Selmi [25] argues that the failure to document and scale effective disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) practices perpetuates a reactive cycle, undermining long-term resilience. More recent evaluations confirm that without institutional integration of local knowledge, DRRM interventions often remain top-down and disconnected from lived realities [26]. Compounding this issue, the effectiveness of DRRM strategies is profoundly mediated by pre-existing social conflicts, a critical factor highly relevant across Southern Africa. Structural conflicts, stemming from historical inequalities, resource scarcity, and political marginalization, are key drivers of vulnerability, determining how hazards impact different social groups [27]. In practice, conflict can directly undermine DRR efforts by eroding the social cohesion necessary for community-based adaptation [28], diverting financial resources from preparedness, and limiting access to vulnerable populations. For instance, in regions experiencing land-related disputes or political instability, early warning systems and evacuation plans may fail due to deep-seated distrust in authorities. A conflict-sensitive approach to DRR is therefore essential; it requires analysing how interventions might mitigate or inadvertently exacerbate underlying tensions [29]. Nevertheless, these context-specific strategies—including community-led innovations that continue to produce locally appropriate responses to natural hazards are often excluded from formal policy processes and underfunded by national and international frameworks. As illustrated in

Table 1. Underutilization of African DRRM Success Stories vs. Reliance on Western-Prescribed Solutions.

Metric/Indicator	Data/Evidence	Implication	Source
Percentage of African-led DRRM case studies in global policy frameworks	Only 12% of DRRM case studies referenced in UNDRR reports (2015–2023) are from African-led initiatives.	African success stories are underrepresented in global guidance, limiting their adoption.	[32]
Funding allocation: Local vs. Western-led DRRM programs	<15% of international DRRM funding in Africa supports community-led programs, while >60% goes to Western NGOs/consultants.	Financial bias favours external actors over local expertise, despite proven local solutions.	[3]
Adoption of indigenous early warning systems	8 African countries have documented effective indigenous forecasting (e.g., Maasai drought predictors), yet only 2 (Kenya, Ethiopia) formally integrate them into national policies.	Local knowledge is sidelined despite higher cultural relevance and cost-effectiveness.	[33]
Post-disaster recovery: Local vs. imported solutions	In Mozambique (post-Cyclone Idai), 72% of recovery funds were allocated to foreign contractors, despite the proven success of local mangrove restoration (reduced flood risk by 40% in pilot zones).	Preference for high-cost external solutions over scalable local models.	[34]
Policy alignment with African Union’s DRRM Strategy	Just 23% of African nations have DRRM policies that prioritize local knowledge (AU audit), while 89% align with UNISDR’s “global standards.”

, the marginalization of African DRRM success stories, contrasted with the continued preference for externally driven models, reveals a critical gap in disaster governance. Addressing this disconnect requires a deliberate shift toward recognizing and investing in preventive, community-led practices that have demonstrably reduced risk and safeguarded lives [30,31].

The evidence in Table 1 shows that African communities have repeatedly developed effective, locally led DRRM strategies, yet broader policies and funding systems persistently ignore these successes in favour of expensive, Western-prescribed solutions. Empirical data underscores this paradox: less than 15% of DRRM donor funding supports community-led, African initiatives. Meanwhile, only 12% of published case studies in the global DRRM literature reflect African-led experiences, and barely 23% of African national DRRM policies meaningfully integrate local indigenous knowledge, despite compelling examples like Mozambique’s community-led mangrove restoration project, which achieved roughly 40% flood-risk reduction. African pastoralist communities routinely rely on indigenous forecasting systems, including species behaviour, celestial observations, and traditional governance structures that, in numerous studies, match or outperform conventional meteorological approaches in drought prediction contexts across regions like Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda (Afar, Gujii, Borana peoples). These are extensively documented in peer-reviewed research [35,36,37]. Yet institutional biases, both financial and policy-driven, still divert attention and resources to foreign frameworks.

Table 2. Evidence of Underutilization of Locally Led DRRMM Success Stories in Africa and Preference for External Models.

Metric	Indicator	Evidence/Data Point	Implication
1. Visibility of Local DRRM Successes	% of peer-reviewed DRRM publications highlighting African-led DRRM innovations	<5% (Scopus database review)	African successes are rarely documented in global literature or policy discourse.
2. Policy Reference to Local Solutions	% of National DRRM Strategies in SADC referencing indigenous/local solutions	14% (SADC DRRM Strategy Review)	Most national plans still adopt top-down, externally guided frameworks.
3. Aid Allocation Bias	% of DRRM donor funding supporting community-led African DRRM practices	<10% (OECD DAC data)	The majority of DRRM funding prioritizes imported technical solutions.
4. Uptake of Documented Local Models	No. of locally developed DRRM innovations replicated across regions	<5 out of 50+ known cases (e.g., IFRC, 2021; AU Biennial Reports)	Successful local models are not scaled or adapted beyond their origin communities.
5. DRRM Training Curricula Content	% of DRRM capacity building programmes in Africa that include African case studies	12% (AfDB Capacity Audit, 2022)	African learners and practitioners are trained on Eurocentric models.
6. Community Perception	% of community DRRM leaders who feel their knowledge informs national plans	19% (Afrobarometer & UNDP Local Voices Study)	Widespread sense of exclusion of local voices in decision-making.
7. Institutional Learning	% of post-disaster evaluations that incorporate traditional/local lessons	8% (ALNAP Lessons Paper Review)	Lost learning opportunities; reactive cycles persist.
8. Example Case: Mozambique Cyclone Response	Recognition of successful community early warning via local radio (2019) in the national strategy	Not adopted in the National Contingency Plan	Local innovation is disregarded despite proven impact.

(Source: Author compilation).

below demonstrates that the paradox is stark: Africa already holds many cost-effective, context-appropriate DRRM solutions capable of reducing risk, fostering resilience, and empowering communities, so why fund outsiders when local success stories demonstrate what works best?

The table shows that despite clear, measurable success, African-grown DRRM solutions are sidelined; data proves they work, yet systems still chase costly fixes.

2.2. Importance of Success Stories in DRRM

The strategic use of success stories in DRRM is vital for fostering long-term resilience amid escalating environmental risks. These narratives serve not only as sources of inspiration but also as evidence that effective DRRM is both feasible and impactful. As Paton and Johnston [38] argue, showcasing concrete examples of risk reduction helps transform abstract policy goals into actionable strategies, motivating innovation and countering public apathy. Moreover, success stories enhance public understanding and engagement. Real-life accounts make complex DRRM concepts accessible and relatable, acting as practical learning tools for communities and decision-makers alike [39]. They also reinforce the message that communities can take charge of their safety, encouraging collective ownership of risk reduction efforts and strengthening local resilience systems.

Success stories in DRRM serve as powerful tools for policy influence, knowledge transfer, and community empowerment. Empirical evidence from successful interventions provides policymakers and donors with proof of concept, catalysing funding and institutional support [35,36]. Kelman [4] reveals decision-makers favour narratives and short-term gains over empirical success, while Levenson [35,40] demonstrates institutional inertia dominates funding allocations, sidelining innovative solutions. In the Global South, documented cases such as community-led early warning systems (EWSs) in Mozambique or flood adaptation in Bangladesh have informed national DRRM strategies and attracted donor investment [41,42]. Beyond funding leverage, success stories facilitate South–South learning and the adaptation of best practices across similar socio-ecological contexts. For instance, the replication of participatory watershed management in Ethiopia and Kenya demonstrates how localized knowledge exchange can scale effective responses [4,43].

Critically, these narratives highlight the centrality of Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKSs) and community agency in building resilience. Participatory DRRM initiatives rooted in local contexts, such as Zimbabwe’s community afforestation projects, underscore the relevance and sustainability of locally owned solutions [44,45]. Moreover, sharing success reinforces public trust, strengthens social cohesion, and encourages inclusive participation in risk governance. Communities with shared positive experiences often exhibit higher levels of preparedness and institutional trust [46,47,48], reinforcing the virtuous cycle of collaborative resilience-building. Innovation, technology, and adaptive strategies are critical drivers of effective DRMM as success stories demonstrate. Technological advances such as satellite monitoring, mobile apps, and drone mapping have significantly improved disaster preparedness and response capacities [49]. Documented successes enhance the visibility and uptake of such innovations, particularly in high-risk regions. Success stories also illustrate the value of climate-smart and nature-based solutions in building resilience. As climate risks change, these examples provide practical pathways for adaptive governance and community-level action [50]. The long-term benefits of sustained DRRM investment, such as reduced vulnerability, quicker recovery, and economic efficiency, further reinforce the case for continuous engagement [1,51].

Notably, Bangladesh exemplifies successful, scalable DRRM. Through community-based early warning systems, resilient infrastructure, and climate-adaptive policies, the country has significantly reduced disaster-related fatalities and economic losses. The construction of flood embankments, cyclone shelters, and improved evacuation protocols has enabled millions to relocate in time [6,52]. Its model highlights how proactive, integrated approaches can be adapted across similarly vulnerable contexts, fostering global learning and resilience-building.

3. Theories, Problem Statement, and Research Questions

Supporting the Use of Success Stories in Disaster Risk Reduction

The use of success stories in disaster risk reduction is supported by various theoretical frameworks, each of which highlights the value of sharing positive outcomes to inspire action, share knowledge, and build resilience. Whether through social learning, narrative theory, or resilience theory, success stories play a critical role in disaster risk management by demonstrating effective strategies, fostering collaboration, and encouraging adaptive behaviour in the face of risks.

Table 3. The impact of theories on the use of success stories in DRRM.

Theory	Impact on the Use of Success Stories in DRRM	Applications in DRRM	Key Outcomes	Dominant Period
Social Learning Theory	Success stories serve as models for learning through observation. They promote the imitation of effective disaster risk management practices observed in successful communities.	Demonstrating adaptive behaviours and effective practices in disaster risk management.	Encourages replication of successful strategies by other communities. Promotes observational learning and adoption of best practices.	970s-present
Diffusion of Innovations Theory	Success stories serve as persuasive examples that motivate the adoption of new technologies, practices, or ideas related to disaster management.	Spreading innovative disaster risk management practices (e.g., early warning systems, flood control techniques).	Accelerates the diffusion and adoption of new practices across communities. Shows practical benefits of new strategies.	1960s-present
Constructivist Learning Theory	Success stories help individuals and communities construct knowledge about disaster risks and solutions based on shared experiences.	Collaborative knowledge construction and the contextualization of risk reduction practices.	Builds shared understanding and supports community-led learning in disaster risk management.	1980s-present
Resilience Theory	Success stories highlight how communities have built resilience by adapting to and recovering from disaster events.	Showcasing adaptive capacities and community responses to natural hazards.	Reinforces the importance of adaptive capacity and resilience-building practices.	2000s-present
Narrative Theory	Success stories provide emotional and engaging narratives that help individuals connect with disaster risk reduction efforts on a personal and communal level.	Framing successful disaster management as compelling stories to engage and persuade communities.	Increases emotional buy-in and fosters empathy, motivating action toward disaster preparedness and response.	1990s-present
Social Capital Theory	Success stories demonstrate the importance of strong community networks and collaborative actions in achieving disaster resilience.	Promoting the development of local networks, collective action, and community cohesion in disaster management.	Builds trust and social cohesion, empowering communities to act together in disaster risk management.	2000s-present
Theory of Change	Success stories illustrate the causal link between specific disaster risk reduction actions and positive outcomes, supporting evidence-based decision-making and policy development.	Tracking the impact of disaster risk reduction initiatives and illustrating clear pathways to successful outcomes.	Strengthens evidence-based decision-making, showing how specific actions lead to successful disaster risk management.	2010s-present
People as infrastructure theory	Success stories showcase how collective action and mutual support within communities have been effective for DDR strategies	Encourages residents to be key role players and actors in the decision-making and development of strategies. It also allows for residents to share their experiences and practices	This strengthens the adoption of DDR strategies, making them more sustainable as they are context-specific	2000s-present

(Source: Compiled by authors).

provides the impact of using success stories in DRRM application and key outcomes.

The enduring relevance of foundational social and learning theories in Disaster Risk Reduction is evident in their application to the use of success stories for building community resilience. These theories offer rigorous frameworks explaining how documented experiences drive knowledge transfer, innovation adoption, and collective action, which remain central to effective strategies today. Social Learning Theory, as conceptualized by Bandura [46], emphasizes learning through observation and imitation. In DRRM, success stories serve as tangible models enabling communities to adopt effective resilience strategies by witnessing others’ outcomes. For example, community-based flood management systems developed in Bangladesh have been replicated globally due to their proven effectiveness [53]. This aligns with Wamsler [54], who highlights social learning’s critical role in enhancing disaster preparedness and response.

Diffusion of Innovations Theory, proposed by Rogers [49], describes how new ideas and practices spread through stages including knowledge, persuasion, decision, and implementation. Success stories act as catalysts during the persuasion and decision phases, motivating adoption after communities observe positive results elsewhere. The uptake of early warning systems in cyclone-prone Myanmar was notably influenced by successful implementations in India and Bangladesh [55], consistent with Sahin’s [51] findings on innovation adoption dynamics. Constructivist Learning Theory, developed by Piaget [52], and Vygotsky [53], posits that individuals construct knowledge through experience and social interaction. Success stories facilitate this knowledge construction by helping communities understand vulnerabilities and develop context-specific risk reduction strategies. The post-Hurricane Katrina recovery efforts demonstrate how collaborative engagement shapes resilience [56], supported by Shaw and Izumi [57,58], who emphasize experiential learning’s importance in disaster education.

Resilience Theory focuses on adaptive capacity and recovery. Success stories illustrate how communities build resilience via preparedness, mitigation, and adaptation. Coastal communities in the Philippines reduced storm surge impacts through mangrove restoration, exemplifying ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change [59,60]. Manyena [58,61] similarly discusses resilience’s evolution. Narrative Theory asserts that storytelling is fundamental to how individuals interpret and respond to events. Framing DRRM efforts as narratives makes success stories relatable and emotionally engaging. Japanese tsunami survivors sharing recovery experiences fostered solidarity and motivated others to adopt similar strategies [62]. Frank [63,64] corroborates the role of narrative in motivating behaviour change within health and social contexts.

Social Capital Theory, introduced by Putnam [65,66], highlights the importance of community networks and trust in enabling collective disaster management. Success stories emphasizing community initiatives reveal social capital’s role in resilience. Indonesia’s community-based disaster management after the 2004 tsunami demonstrated how local leadership and solidarity reduce risk [67], further supported by Aldrich [61,68], who explores social capital in disaster recovery. The Theory of Change framework maps causal links between actions and outcomes, guiding monitoring and evaluation. Success stories demonstrate how interventions like early warning systems and preparedness programs build resilience. Sri Lanka’s tsunami early warning system exemplifies how strategic national alerts and community awareness save lives and mitigate impacts [69]. This framework is detailed in United Nations Development Group guidance [70].

Finally, People as Infrastructure Theory, introduced by Simone [63,66,71], conceptualizes collective community action and networks as vital “infrastructure.” In DRRM, success stories highlight how community collaboration and mutual support create adaptive capacity. Examples from South Africa, Rwanda, Namibia, and Malawi show how education and training mobilize communities for risk reduction [72]. Collectively, these theories provide a robust scientific foundation demonstrating that success stories are not only tools for inspiration but also fundamental mechanisms driving knowledge diffusion, innovation, resilience, and sustainable disaster risk management and reduction.

4. Methods and Materials

4.1. Research Design

This study adopts a qualitative, multiple-case study approach to examine successful disaster risk reduction initiatives within the Southern African Development Community region. Cases were purposively selected based on clear evidence of effectiveness, alignment with proactive DRRM principles, and demonstrable community engagement. To ensure methodological rigour and analytical depth, the study employs a multi-method design incorporating document analysis, semi-structured expert interviews, participatory workshops, and direct field observations. This triangulated approach enhances validity and enables a nuanced understanding of context-specific factors driving DRRM success [73,74,75].

4.2. Data Sources and Collection

This study employed a multi-faceted methodology to ensure methodological rigor and validity, integrating both secondary and primary data sources. Secondary data were gathered from peer-reviewed literature and institutional publications from leading organizations, including the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Southern African Development Community, African Development Bank (AfDB), African Union, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and the World Bank [76]. Analytical methods such as bibliometric reviews, policy content analysis, and aid flow categorization were applied to these documents to derive key metrics. Governmental data were obtained from national disaster management agencies, including South Africa’s National Disaster Management Centre, Botswana’s National Disaster Management Office, and Mozambique’s Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades, alongside official policy documents and DRRM frameworks [1,77].

Primary qualitative data were collected through 27 semi-structured interviews with experts, policymakers, and practitioners across the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, in line with established ethical standards [64,77]. These were complemented by field observations and six regional workshops with focal persons from the Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), East African Community (EAC), Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), and Southern African Development Community (SADC). The workshops engaged disaster risk reduction focal points and civil society representatives to assess disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) systems, identify effective tools, and evaluate the integration of local strategies into policy and planning. Findings underscored that while locally grounded strategies are often effective, they remain undervalued and underutilized in institutional training and planning [78,79], reinforcing quantitative evidence on the marginalization of local knowledge.

The authors’ positionality, as experienced consultants and contributors to the African Union’s biennial reporting processes, enabled access to institutional knowledge, strategic policy networks, and on-the-ground implementation practices across SADC, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. Case studies analysed in this study include Mozambique’s response to Cyclone Idai in 2019, South Africa’s multi-hazard coordination mechanisms (2022–2023), and Malawi’s community-led flood adaptation efforts. All research activities adhered to rigorous ethical protocols, including informed consent, voluntary participation, and confidentiality [80]. Secondary data were drawn from publicly available sources, with full acknowledgment of intellectual property rights.

4.3. Data Management and Analysis

The lead researcher managed all data in accordance with established qualitative research protocols to ensure rigor, transparency, and confidentiality. All interview recordings and workshop notes were transcribed verbatim, anonymized, and stored securely in encrypted digital repositories accessible exclusively to the core research team [81,82]. Data analysis followed an inductive–deductive thematic approach, allowing for the emergence of new themes while also coding for predefined categories derived from the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. To strengthen credibility and replicability, reflexivity practices and detailed audit trails were maintained throughout the research process [83].

4.4. Limitations

Potential limitations of the study include challenges in accessing government officials and subject-matter experts for interviews, which may constrain the depth of first-hand insights. Additionally, data availability is likely to vary significantly across regions, with particularly limited or inconsistent information emerging from conflict-affected areas. Furthermore, there is a risk of bias in self-reported success stories, especially those presented in official government or agency reports, which may emphasize achievements while underreporting challenges or failures.

5. Findings

5.1. Regional Workshops

The regional workshops conducted across African member states and the SADC region revealed key insights into the importance of success stories in disaster risk management (DRM). Participants, including both male and female focal persons, consistently emphasized the value of sharing positive experiences in disaster risk reduction DRRM. Their responses highlighted several recurring themes, which are detailed below.

5.2. Inspiration and Motivation for Action

Positive Reinforcement

Both male and female participants noted that success stories serve as a source of motivation by demonstrating the tangible benefits of effective DRMM interventions.

A middle-aged participant from one of the SADC member states stated,

“Seeing what has worked in other communities gives us confidence that we can also make a difference in our areas.” Similarly, a senior participant remarked that “success stories create a roadmap for us; they show that disaster resilience is achievable, not just theoretical.”

5.3. Overcoming Fear and Apathy

Fear and apathy often hinder proactive DRRM efforts. Workshop participants highlighted that storytelling could play a crucial role in shifting mindsets.

One senior participant mentioned, “People feel powerless in the face of disasters, but when they hear of others overcoming challenges, they believe they can too.” Another junior participant added, “Success stories reduce the feeling of helplessness and replace it with action-oriented thinking.”

5.4. Enhancing Public Awareness and Engagement

Educational Tool

Success stories function as powerful educational tools in DRRM, enhancing the accessibility and relevance of technical concepts. Regional workshop discussions revealed that communities engage more effectively with DRRM when real-life examples are used to illustrate preparedness and risk reduction. Participants consistently emphasised that personal narratives resonate more deeply than abstract statistics. A middle manager participant explained,

“People need to see real outcomes; statistics alone don’t resonate as much as personal experiences.” Similarly, a junior participant noted, “Hearing firsthand how another village implemented early warning systems and saved lives makes the importance of these measures clear to us.”

These accounts also reinforced a sense of collective purpose and shared responsibility. Participants highlighted that learning about successful initiatives in neighbouring communities fosters hope, strengthens local agency, and encourages collective action. As one elderly participant stated,

“When we hear about another village successfully mitigating flood risks, we realize we are not alone in this struggle.” A senior participant added, “These stories create a sense of collective action and responsibility. Preparedness is not just an individual task but a community-wide effort.”

The evidence from these workshops aligns with established research on storytelling in DRM. Narrative-based learning helps translate complex risk information into culturally resonant messages, deepens emotional engagement, and bridges the gap between technical knowledge and lived experience [82]. Storytelling also preserves Indigenous knowledge, facilitates inclusive participation, and enhances community resilience, particularly in contexts marked by vulnerability and limited data. When showcasing real-world applications of success stories motivate action, reinforce preparedness behaviours, and inspire both community and institutional commitment to risk reduction.

5.5. Empirical Evidence Supporting DRM Strategies

Regional and international reports, alongside peer-reviewed literature, confirm the effectiveness of DRRM strategies in reducing disaster impacts. The SADC Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy (2015–2030) cites Mozambique’s flood early warning system as having halved flood-related casualties. The World Bank [1] highlights how demonstrated DRRM success increases political will and resource allocation. Documented outcomes underscore the importance of showcasing impact to attract investment and policy commitment.

5.5.1. Funding Through Demonstrated Success

Well-documented success stories play a pivotal role in securing donor confidence, influencing policy uptake, and scaling effective practices. In Zimbabwe, the Community-Based programme cited in the SADC Disaster Risk Reduction Programme in 2020 demonstrated strong community ownership, early warning adoption, and local capacity building. These documented outcomes were instrumental in attracting technical and financial support from regional and international partners. Likewise, the Zambezi River Basin Flood Resilience Initiative showcased cross-border collaboration and locally led flood mitigation strategies, which directly informed regional resilience planning and unlocked further investment [84].

In Malawi, the government’s agricultural diversification strategy, following the 2015 El Niño crisis, integrated climate-resilient crops and community extension services. This initiative not only reduced future food insecurity but also served as a model of proactive adaptation. Its success, documented through outcome reports and evaluation metrics, was key to securing World Bank funding and scaling the programme nationally [76,85]. These examples confirm that success stories do more than inspire; they act as proof of concept, legitimising locally grounded interventions and catalysing both policy innovation and financial commitment.

5.5.2. Knowledge Exchange and Cross-Border Replication

SADC strategies actively promote regional learning by facilitating the replication of proven models across member states. Lesotho’s community-based flood management initiatives, for instance, have directly informed similar programs in Namibia, demonstrating how locally tested interventions can be scaled regionally. Likewise, South Africa’s drought response strategies have shaped national policies in both Botswana and Tanzania, underscoring the influence of context-specific solutions when backed by evidence of impact [86]. Namibia’s Community-Based Early Warning System has been successfully adapted in Zambia and Angola, reflecting cross-border transferability of effective practices. The SADC Resilience Framework [87] further confirms the widespread uptake of South African water conservation and floodplain management approaches, illustrating the critical role of shared experiences and success stories in advancing coordinated, evidence-based disaster risk reduction across the region.

5.5.3. Social Capital and Institutional Trust

Effective DRRM is deeply influenced by the strength of social networks and the level of public trust, which underpin community resilience and coordinated action. Social capital theory, particularly the work of Aldrich [61,88], emphasises bonding, bridging, and linking ties as critical to enabling cooperation, sharing information, and mobilising resources during crises. Bandura’s [46] theory of collective efficacy further highlights how a shared belief in communal capability can significantly enhance proactive disaster behaviours and preparedness. These concepts are particularly relevant in the African context, where state capacities are often limited and informal networks play a vital role in DRRM. Empirical evidence supports these theoretical insights. Mozambique’s Community Resilience Programme [81,89] leveraged local networks to mount an effective response to Cyclone Idai, demonstrating the power of embedded social trust. In Zambia, successful community flood interventions enhanced public confidence in institutions, fostering broader participation in preparedness planning [90]. Recent studies reinforce that communities with high social cohesion and institutional trust are more capable of absorbing shocks and recovering from disasters [91,92]. These findings affirm that strengthening social capital and collective efficacy must be central pillars in DRRM strategies, particularly in hazard-prone and resource-constrained regions such as Southern Africa.

5.5.4. Technological Integration in DRRM

Technology is transforming DRRM across Southern Africa by complementing indigenous and local knowledge systems, thereby reinforcing key principles from Bandura’s Social Learning Theory [46,92] and Granovetter’s Network Theory [93] regarding the role of trusted social networks and experiential learning in behaviour change. Recent research demonstrates that integrating technological innovations with community-based knowledge enhances the legitimacy and effectiveness of early warning and response systems. South Africa’s satellite-based wildfire monitoring, combined with traditional ecological knowledge, has improved real-time risk communication and adaptive responses, influencing similar systems in Namibia and Eswatini [2]. Zimbabwe’s hybrid early warning system, which blends satellite data with indigenous indicators and mobile alerts, proved instrumental during flood events and has been scaled regionally due to its culturally relevant design and technical robustness [94]. These success stories highlight how the convergence of technology, local knowledge, and social trust accelerates adaptive capacity and resilience, aligning with the Sendai Framework’s call for inclusive and context-specific disaster risk reduction [3,26].

5.5.5. Adaptive Responses to Climate Change

Adaptive technologies have become indispensable in responding to the challenges of a changing climate. The SADC Climate Change Adaptation Strategy [95] highlights Malawi’s innovative use of climate data combined with mobile applications to bolster agricultural resilience. Integrating real-time weather information and localized forecasting, these tools empower farmers to make informed decisions, thereby reducing vulnerability to droughts and floods. Such technologies are critical for strengthening adaptive capacity in key sectors like agriculture and water management, especially as extreme weather events intensify across the region [96]. This approach exemplifies how digital innovation, when aligned with local knowledge systems, can support sustainable climate adaptation.

5.5.6. Sustainability and Long-Term Impact

SADC countries have implemented disaster risk management strategies yielding demonstrable long-term benefits by combining evidence-based policies, community engagement, and technological innovation. Namibia’s Drought Management Policy emphasizes community-based water conservation, such as rainwater harvesting, which has significantly reduced drought vulnerability and improved water security [28]. Mozambique’s Cyclone Preparedness Program enhanced infrastructure resilience and early response capacities, substantially mitigating impacts during Cyclone Idai [78]. Mauritius continually upgrades its early warning systems post-Cyclone Diane (2013), integrating satellite technologies and multi-channel communication platforms to improve public alerting and disaster coordination [82]. All these cases as shown in

Table 4. Case study findings.

Cases Example		Mitigation/DRRM Strategies	Outcomes	Lessons Learned
South Africa (Cape Town)	Climate Change Action Plan	-Early warning systems for flooding -Infrastructure reinforcement (stormwater systems, critical infrastructure) -Community engagement and awareness campaigns	-Enhanced flood preparedness -Improved infrastructure resilience -Stronger community resilience to floods	-Proactive planning is crucial for urban resilience -Investing in infrastructure reduces disaster impacts -Community involvement boosts disaster preparedness effectiveness
Mozambique	Cyclone Idai (2019)	-Improved early warning systems (meteorological services, accurate forecasting) -Relocation strategies for high-risk areas -Community-based communication (radios, megaphones)	-Better cyclone preparedness -Reduced vulnerability through relocation -Timely evacuation in high-risk areas	-Timely communication is critical for safety -Community-based approaches enhance early warning system effectiveness
Rwanda	Community-Based Landslide Mitigation Projects	-Slope stabilization (terracing, afforestation, drainage) -Community training in sustainable land management	-Reduced landslide risk in vulnerable areas -Empowered communities with sustainable land management skills	-Community education and training lead to effective disaster mitigation -Integrating environmental conservation with disaster risk reduction is essential
Namibia	Drought Mitigation and Water Conservation (2020)	-Hydroponic fodder production -Rainwater harvesting -Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) -Soil and water conservation (LDN measures)	-Increased livestock feed availability -Improved water access during dry periods -Enhanced agricultural productivity	-Water-saving technologies are essential for drought-prone areas -Integrated water resources management ensures sustainable water use -Effective community engagement strengthens resilience
Malawi	Flood Mitigation and Early Warning Systems	-Improved early warning systems (weather forecasting, communication tools) -Flood-resistant infrastructure -Community flood preparedness programs	-Reduced flood damages -Increased community participation in preparedness -Better early warning communication	-Early warning systems save lives and property -Community training and preparedness enhance disaster resilience
Zimbabwe	Drought and Water Conservation Strategies	-Water-harvesting techniques (tanks, rainwater collection) -Drought-resistant crops -Community-based water management	-Increased access to water during dry periods -Improved crop yields despite droughts -Enhanced community management of water resources	-Drought-resistant agriculture reduces vulnerability -Community-led water management ensures sustainability

collectively highlight how integrating local knowledge, social capital, and adaptive technologies strengthens resilience. The replication of such successful DRM models across the region fosters regional cooperation, enhances collective preparedness in Southern Africa [3,89].

Successful climate adaptation strategies across Southern Africa case studies demonstrate that context-driven success stories, grounded in theory and enriched by local knowledge, are essential for scalable and sustainable resilience. Cape Town’s 40% reduction in urban flood impacts and Malawi’s 35% drop in flood fatalities reflect how applied social learning [58] and diffusion of innovation theory [60] help replicate effective interventions. Mozambique’s accelerated cyclone evacuations after Cyclone Idai [61] show how trust-building through social capital theory [72] and radio-based warnings fostered rapid community response. Rwanda’s landslide risk reduction using terracing and afforestation illustrates how ecosystem-based adaptation aligns with indigenous practices and long-term ecological resilience [61,62].

Namibia’s water security gains and Zimbabwe’s food resilience programs highlight the transformative role of locally embedded agroecological knowledge, supported by participatory governance models. Theories of social learning and adaptive capacity [63,66] reinforce the value of community-led experimentation and iterative learning. These success stories, shared through SADC platforms, inspire regional replication, attract donor confidence, and drive policy innovation [33,89]. They prove that evidence-based, theory-informed, and culturally grounded strategies are pivotal for long-term resilience.

6. Discussion

Historical and contemporary evidence demonstrates a profound and enduring capacity for DRRM deeply rooted in local and indigenous knowledge systems. Across Africa and beyond, ancient civilizations from the Nubians’ water-harvesting techniques to the Incas’ seismic-resistant masonry developed sophisticated, context-sensitive strategies for coping with environmental hazards [7,14,15,16,17]. These innovations were not simply technical feats; they reflected holistic understandings of environmental dynamics and social organization, enabling communities to thrive under challenging conditions. This legacy establishes a critical foundation: communities have long been the primary architects of their resilience, generating adaptive strategies through iterative learning and practical experimentation [1,24]. Such historical precedents underscore that effective risk reduction is often grounded in localized knowledge and community agency rather than imposed external solutions.

Despite this legacy, a significant disconnect exists between local expertise and contemporary policy and funding mechanisms. Table 1 and Table 2 illustrate a systematic underutilization of African-led DRRM successes in global discourse, national policies, and international funding streams [29,30,31,32]. Less than 15% of international funding supports community-led programs, and a small proportion of peer-reviewed literature highlights African innovations [29,30]. This bias persists even though evidence shows that locally grounded strategies such as community-led mangrove restoration in Mozambique and indigenous forecasting in Kenya and Ethiopia are both culturally appropriate and cost-effective [31,32]. The marginalization of local knowledge, therefore, appears less a matter of efficacy than the result of entrenched institutional biases, unequal power dynamics in aid allocation, and inadequate mechanisms for documenting and scaling hyper-local innovations [25,30].

The theoretical frameworks underpinning success stories, Social Learning Theory, Diffusion of Innovations, and Social Capital Theory help explain why this disconnect is particularly detrimental [46,49,62]. These theories emphasize that communities learn through observation, trust, and shared narratives. When local successes are ignored in favour of external models, opportunities for culturally resonant learning are lost. Stakeholders across SADC, as revealed in our workshops and interviews, reported widespread exclusion from formal planning processes and a perception that their knowledge is disregarded [74,75]. Such exclusion erodes the social capital and institutional trust identified by theory as essential to collective action and resilience [65,86], demonstrating how top-down approaches can undermine the foundations of sustainable DRRM.

The role of success stories is complex, and the literature reflects both enthusiasm and critique. Success stories are valuable for knowledge sharing, motivating stakeholders, and galvanizing political support, yet they also carry risks of misrepresentation and oversimplification. Our interviews, policy analyses, and literature review illustrate how success stories shape narratives and practices across the SADC region. While they effectively communicate lessons and best practices, their uncritical use can obscure structural vulnerabilities and distort policy priorities.

Interviewees across Mozambique, Namibia, and Rwanda highlighted the practical value of showcasing local successes to attract donor support and influence policy. In Mozambique, respondents emphasized the Cyclone Idai early warning system and community mobilization as national turning points, later recognized in SADC Climate Strategy briefings and reports as “scalable models” of resilience. Yet, practitioners also noted that such narratives often overshadow systemic issues, including fragmented governance, underfunded response systems, and rural infrastructural inequities, particularly in Sofala and Zambézia. Social Learning and Constructivist Learning Theories illuminate how communities learn from observed and shared experiences, as seen in Namibia’s drought adaptation via community-led rainwater harvesting. However, these learning processes are neither linear nor universally transferable, a reality underscored by Botswana and Malawi respondents who described the failure of externally imposed “best practice” templates to align with local socio-ecological conditions [5].

A related challenge emerged in the policy documents of five SADC countries. While success stories frequently feature in national strategies, they are rarely accompanied by rigorous evaluation or counterfactual analysis. For example, South Africa’s National Disaster Management Framework [78] cites “community-based successes” without specifying criteria for success or assessing long-term sustainability. Similarly, Zimbabwe’s 2019 Flood Response Report framed preparedness in Binga district as a success, despite recurring displacement in 2021. This reflects Oliver-Smith’s [90] critique of “success washing,” where partial victories are selectively highlighted to maintain funding or international standing.

Another significant gap is the frequent omission of indigenous and local knowledge from success narratives. Interviews in Malawi, Lesotho, and Tanzania showed that communities continue to rely on environmental cues, ancestral knowledge, and spiritual practices to predict hazards and adapt livelihoods. Yet formal DRRM strategies often treat these insights as peripheral rather than central to resilience-building. Scholars such as Ifejika Speranza [95] and Nyong [96] argue that sidelining local knowledge diminishes the legitimacy and contextual effectiveness of externally driven interventions. The Diffusion of Innovations Theory further explains how technologies, like mobile weather alerts or drought-resistant seeds, are disseminated through success stories. Rwanda’s terracing and afforestation initiatives, exported to Kenya and Burundi, demonstrate that success depends heavily on state support, consistent donor funding, and community trust conditions not easily replicated [93].

Interviews with DRRM practitioners and policymakers revealed another concern: success stories are often treated as policy instruments rather than as tools for reflective learning. Several respondents reported that project continuity faltered once funding tied to the original success expired, exposing fragile institutional memory and limited endogenous capacity development. This illustrates a broader issue in donor-driven DRRM, where emphasis on quantifiable outcomes often outweighs long-term systemic change [25]. Nevertheless, when properly contextualized, success stories can facilitate regional learning. For instance, the Pacific Tsunami Warning System inspired South Africa’s coastal risk assessment upgrades, while Botswana’s flood management practices, combining modern hydrology with Setswana environmental knowledge, have influenced Namibia’s early warning systems. These examples demonstrate how well-documented, critically assessed success stories can foster horizontal learning and innovation diffusion across SADC.

Going forward, a recalibration of DRRM governance is essential. This requires prioritizing the documentation, validation, and scaling of community-led innovations alongside external technological solutions. Zimbabwe’s hybrid early warning system, which integrates digital meteorological data with community observations, exemplifies this approach [93]. Policy must create formal pathways for integrating local knowledge, consistent with the Sendai Framework [3], including revising national DRRM strategies, redirecting donor funding toward community-based organizations, and incorporating African case studies and theories into training curricula [29,31].

A conflict-sensitive lens is also crucial. Pre-existing social tensions can undermine DRR initiatives if unaddressed, and success stories that ignore these dynamics risk reinforcing marginalization. Ensuring the participation and recognition of historically excluded groups such as women, rural communities, and persons with disabilities is vital to building legitimacy, trust, and sustainable resilience [3,29].

From an epistemological perspective, it is important to recognize that all success stories are socially constructed [94,97]. They reflect deliberate choices about what to highlight, omit, or downplay, and must be situated within broader political, ecological, and cultural contexts. Reflexive analyses that examine both what worked and what did not are essential for understanding the full picture of DRRM effectiveness.

In sum, success stories are neither inherently positive nor negative; their value depends on how they are framed, interpreted, and applied. When critically engaged and contextualized, they can illuminate innovation, inspire adaptation, and facilitate learning. When decontextualized or instrumentalized, they risk reinforcing inequalities and obscuring systemic vulnerabilities. Incorporating indigenous knowledge, institutional weaknesses, and lived realities into these narratives enhances their utility and credibility.

A nuanced approach to success stories is therefore necessary for comprehensive DRRM evaluation. Positive examples provide valuable lessons and motivation, but they must be presented alongside challenges and failures to offer realistic, holistic perspectives. Balanced, reflexive narratives support informed decision-making, strengthen institutional memory, and promote sustainable disaster resilience across Africa and beyond. As DRRM continues to evolve, maintaining a critical lens on success stories will remain essential for advancing effective, equitable, and contextually grounded disaster management strategies.

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

This analysis affirms the critical value of success stories in promoting resilience and knowledge sharing within Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM). However, our findings also necessitate a more nuanced and critical approach to their use to avoid oversimplification and the perpetuation of “success washing.” A balanced narrative, one that incorporates an honest appraisal of challenges, contextual constraints, and lessons from failures, is essential for these stories to genuinely inform effective practice.

To this end, our findings suggest several forward-looking pathways. Firstly, there is a compelling need to institutionalize a critical evaluation framework for success stories. Such a framework, potentially coordinated through SADC, should mandate the documentation of contextual factors, implementation challenges, and long-term sustainability to ensure robust and transferable learning. Secondly, effectively integrating local and indigenous knowledge with scientific approaches remains a critical yet under-institutionalized practice. Our cases suggest that formal policy must create systematic mechanisms for this integration to enhance the legitimacy and effectiveness of locally owned resilience.

Furthermore, moving beyond isolated examples of success requires a strategic shift toward prioritizing scalable and systemic interventions. This entails identifying and investing in community-led initiatives that demonstrate clear potential for regional adaptation, supported by dedicated funding and cross-border capacity building. Underpinning all these efforts must be a principle of reflexive learning within DRRM governance, where success stories are used not as promotional tools, but as catalysts for honest dialogue about institutional gaps and collaborative learning across the region.

These suggested directions also reveal key areas for further scholarly inquiry. Future research is essential to quantitatively and qualitatively assess the sustained impact of community-led interventions across different governance contexts. Moreover, a critical exploration of effective mechanisms for integrating Indigenous Knowledge Systems into formal policy and funding streams would provide invaluable guidance for achieving more equitable and context-sensitive disaster governance in Southern Africa.