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Article

Assessment of the Effect of Applying Sustainable Irrigation Systems on the Growth of Three Selected Rangelands’ Plants in Semi-Arid Areas of Saudi Arabia

by
Sahar Ezzat
1,
Abdelaziz Gaiballa
1,
Mosaed A. Majrashi
2,
Zafer Alasmary
2,
Hesham M. Ibrahim
2,3,
Meshal Abdullah Harbi
4,
Abdullah Abldubise
4,
Munirah Ayid Alqahtani
4 and
Abdulaziz G. Alghamdi
2,*
1
College of Forestry and Range Science, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum 11113, Sudan
2
Department of Soil Sciences, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
3
Department of Soils and Water, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
4
National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification, 6336 Northern Ring Br Rd, An Nafal, 3372, Riyadh 13312, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(20), 9098; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209098 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 5 September 2025 / Revised: 9 October 2025 / Accepted: 13 October 2025 / Published: 14 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Soil Conservation and Sustainability)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Rangelands of arid and semi-arid regions are facing severe issues due to climate change, desertification, and overgrazing, which are subsequently leading towards the degradation of native shrubs. Several approaches have been practiced so far in the restoration of rangeland; however, optimization of irrigation practice is considered to be a promising strategy to restore native shrubs’ growth, by improving water distribution and plants’ physiological growth. In this study, a field experiment was conducted across three semi-arid sites, including Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq), to assess the impact of drip and sprinkler irrigation on the growth dynamics of region-specific native shrubs. Plant growth parameters like plant height, stem diameter, and crown size ratio were measured monthly over 12 months (June 2024–June 2025). Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed that drip irrigation significantly enhanced growth performance compared to sprinkler and control treatments across all sites. Plant height increased up to 142% in Haloxylon persicum, while the stem diameter of Vachellia gerrardii expanded by nearly 198% under drip irrigation. Crown size ratio exhibited site- and species-dependent temporal patterns, with drip irrigation consistently supporting greater canopy expansion. Meanwhile, the interactions between irrigation type, species, and time were significant at most sites, indicating temporal and contextual variability in growth dynamics. Overall, these findings demonstrate that drip irrigation has substantial potential for the rangeland restoration in water-limited environments. However, future studies should assess the long-term impact of irrigation practices for a better understanding of soil–plant–water interactions to ensure the restoration of rangelands in arid regions.

1. Introduction

Climate change, global warming, and anthropogenic activities are posing detrimental impacts on the rangeland expansion, specifically in the arid and semi-arid regions [1,2,3]. In Saudi Arabia, where annual rainfall is below 250 mm, the temperature remains over 40 °C in summer, and sandy soils with <1% organic matter content further hinder the growth of native rangeland shrubs, which subsequently encourages the land degradation and loss of soil biodiversity [4,5]. Moreover, approximately 70% of the country’s rangelands are classified as being severely or moderately degraded [6]. Besides this, it has been reported that 43% of the global semi-arid regions are covered by rangelands; meanwhile, in Saudi Arabia these areas are vulnerable to desertification, soil erosion, and consequently, loss of shrub diversity [4,7,8].
Optimization of irrigation is the crucial requirement to restore native rangeland species in arid and semi-arid climatic conditions [9]. Besides other irrigation practices (sprinkler, surface flood, etc.), drip irrigation is considered to be a sustainable approach in improving plant physiology and yield components [10,11,12,13]. Drip irrigation delivers water directly to the plant roots, which helps in minimizing water loss through runoff and evaporation and ultimately improve plant water uptake [10,14,15]. Studies suggest that the drip irrigation practice resulted in significant increments in plant height, stem thickness, chlorophyll content, and shoots growth in xerophytes plants, which is due to the optimization of turgor pressure and cell elongation [16,17,18]. It has been observed that drip irrigation has the potential to improve plant height, stem diameter, and water-use efficiency up to 13.62, 18, and 29.41%, respectively, compared to the conventional flood irrigation under arid conditions [19,20]. However, the response of shrub plant also varies according to the irrigation system, season, and growing soil type [21]. For instance, a study conducted in Great Basin dryland revealed that winter irrigation significantly improves the crown and canopy volume of sagebrush without altering the branch density [22,23,24]. Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, Prosopis juliflora irrigation with saline water also maintained the growth and stem diameter of plants under sandy loam soil conditions [25]. Magnetized brackish water notably alleviated the toxic impact on the Haloxylon ammodendron species up to 20.31% more compared to non-magnetized conditions in clay loam textured soil [26,27]. Research has shown that Atriplex leucoclada is a halophytic native shrub species which has the remarkable adaptability capacity to grow in water-scarce regions by adjusting its osmotic mechanism and root structure [28,29]. Optimal water management techniques result in an improvement of stem diameter and crown expansion, as noticed in Vachellia gerrardii. Similarly, species like Haloxylon persicum have intricate physiological strategies to survive under drought conditions, including regulation of osmotic pressure, tissue flexibility, and cell elongation [30,31].
The increments of plant height and crown size under adequate irrigation supply can further upgrade the microclimate conditions that resulted in optimum growth of associated plant species [32,33]. Such practices play a crucial role in the regeneration of degraded rangelands; consequently, higher plant abundance minimizes land erosion, provides shelter for wildlife, and improves the soil carbon sequestration status [34,35]. However, limited studies pay attention to the comparative analysis of different irrigation strategies, including drip and sprinkler, on native shrub species. Meanwhile, selection of appropriate native rangeland species is another key concern, because under native climatic conditions, plants grow better and survive for longer periods of time with optimum irrigation approaches. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the impact of sprinkler and drip irrigation approaches on the growth (plant height, stem diameter, and crown size ratio) of different native rangeland shrub species in three semi-arid regions of Saudi Arabia, including Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq), and to assess how these distinct regions respond to different irrigation practices, which can play a key role in developing evidence-based recommendations for Saudi Arabia’s national revegetation initiatives.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Site Description and Plant Selection

A field experiment was conducted at three different locations of Saudi Arabia including Al-Tamriyyat in the Al-Jouf region (31.33° N, 37.34° E), Al-Sahwa in the Al-Madina region (24.47° N, 39.61° E), and Al-Fuhaihil in the Thadiq region (25.28° N, 45.87° E). Experimental sites are characterized as semi-arid, which receive limited annual rainfall with high temperatures. Meanwhile, the soil of these regions varied from sandy to sandy loam with lower organic matter content.
A comprehensive vegetation survey was conducted in 2023 at the designated experimental sites to analyze the growth, significance, and suitability of the native shrubs in the respective regions to restore vegetation. Soil samples were also collected at each site from top 0–5 cm soil depth to determine the physicochemical characteristics, seed bank potential, and suitability for implementing controlled irrigation trials of the soil from each region. Moreover, the selection of native shrub species for the restoration of vegetation was made based on several aspects: for example, ecological adaptation to local environmental conditions, particularly tolerance to heat and drought, potential for practical cultivation at reasonable economic cost, and relevance for rangeland restoration and forage production. After the completion of analysis, three successful native shrub species were selected for each experimental site. At Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), these were Raganum nudatum (Aldamran), Atriplex leucoclada (Alrughal), and Salsola villosa (Al-Rutha), abbreviated as Pl1, Pl2 and Pl3, respectively. Similarly, in the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madinah) region, Vachellia tortilis (Al-Samur) (Pl1), Lycium shawii (Al-Awsag) (Pl2), and Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (Pl3) were the native species selected; meanwhile, for Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq), the selected species were Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (Pl1), Haloxylon persicum (Al-Ghada) (Pl2), and Ziziphus nummularia (Sidir) (Pl3).

2.2. Experimental Setup

A randomized complete block design (RCBD) was established at each experiment, with three different types of irrigations (control (no irrigation), drip, and sprinkler irrigation practices) to check their impact on the growth of seedlings of site-specific shrub species. Each experimental site contained a total area of 16,100 m2 (230 m × 70 m) and each treatment was replicated thrice, which resulted in 27 plots per site. In each plot, twenty-five healthy seedlings of each plant type from the respective area were transplanted; 4 m and 5 m plant-to-plant distance was maintained for shrubs and trees, respectively, to ensure species-specific growth without interactions with nearer plants.

2.3. Seedlings Plantation and Irrigation Practices

Seedlings of each species were grown in a controlled nursery environment and, upon reaching the appropriate size, these seedlings were transplanted into their respective plots. In each plot, 25 pits with 40 cm depth and 4 m distance were excavated, and after the seedlings’ transplantation, they were filled with native soil. Moreover, immediately after transplantation, each seedling pit received an equal volume of initial water, including the control, to ensure root establishment in the new environment. Irrigation treatments started one month after plantation and continued until the end of the experiment. The layout of the seedling transplantation, along with the pit arrangement, is visualized in Figure 1.
The modified Penman–Monteith equation [34] was used to calculate the reference for evapotranspiration (ETo), based on average climatic data in each region. Plant evapotranspiration (ETc) was calculated for each plant species by multiplying the corresponding ETo by the plant factor (Kl), according to the equation E T c = E T O × K l . Plant factors of pasture plants were determined based on previous studies to range between 0.3 and 0.5. Finally, the total water requirements (GWR) were calculated, taking into account the type of irrigation system (Drip vs. Sprinkler), as GWR = ETc/Ei, where Ei is the efficiency of the irrigation system. The efficiency of the irrigation system was determined as 90 and 70% for the drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, respectively. Based on the methodology presented, the amounts of irrigation water required were calculated for each plant species in Al-Tamiryyat (Aldamran, 0.93 mm d−1; Alrughal, 0.99 mm d−1, and Al-Rutha, 1.13 mm d−1), Al-Sahwa (Al-Samur, 1.11 mm d−1, Al-Awsag, 1.48 mm d−1, and Talih, 1.48 mm d−1), and Al-Fuhaihil (Talih, 1.39 mm d−1, Al-Ghada, 1.19 mm d−1, and Sidir, 1.19 mm d−1).
The irrigation system was established at each experimental site according to the appropriate procedures of drip and sprinkler irrigation. Additionally, a centralized water storage tank was placed in each experimental location, where this water tank was connected to a water drew pump. Besides this, a pressure control regulator was also installed at experimental sites to maintain consistent water pressure and the availability of water at the farthest point of field. For the sprinkler mode of irrigation, high quality polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes were used as a main line and subsequently connected with water pump. However, the diameters of the mainline and sub-mainline pipes were selected according to the length and width of the experimental plots, to ensure adequate amount of water supply at regular intervals. Table 1 shows the calculated values for the GWR for each plant in each region and the total amount of irrigation water added during the entire growing season, along with the amount of water added to each plot and the duration for the operation of the irrigation systems based on the implemented schedule for irrigation.
Rotary-spray sprinklers with an application rate of 1800 L h−1 and a spray diameter of 27 m were used to irrigate the plants. The application of irrigation treatments started in July 2024 (one month after the start of the experiment) and lasted until the end of June 2025. The amount of irrigation was calculated based on the calculated ETc values for each plant species in each region. Each plot (400 m2) received a total amount (throughout the entire experimental period of 330 days), that varied according to region and plant species. In Al-Tamiryyat, plants Pl1, Pl2 and Pl3 received 744, 792, and 904 L, respectively. Similarly, in Al-Sahwa, plants Pl1, Pl2, and Pl3 received 888, 1184, and 1184 L, respectively. Finally in Al-Fuhaihil, plants Pl1, Pl2, and Pl3 received 1112, 952, and 952 L, respectively. In all study regions, the application of the required irrigation water was applied every other day, and sprinklers were operated for a time period that ranged between 25 and 40 min to deliver the required amount of irrigation water, based on the manufacture discharge rate (1800 L h−1).
For drip irrigation practices, high-quality polyethylene drip lines were placed on the soil surface, followed by the installation of emitters (at equal distance) at the rate of one emitter per plant. Later, holes of uniform size were made in pipes at equal distance, according to the pit distance. The main pipeline connected with the water pump, which transferred water to the drip lines and subsequent plant pits. Frequent drip irrigation practices were made according to the soil moisture and plant requirements. High-flow emitters with an application rate of 50 L h−1 were used. The irrigation amount under the drip irrigation system was calculated as being per plant, assuming a square area of 1 m2 for each plant. Based on this assumption, irrigation water requirements were calculated based on the calculated ETc values for each plant species in each region. Each plant (1 m2) received a total amount (throughout the entire experimental period of 330 days), that varied according to region and plant species. In Al-Tamiryyat, plants Pl1, Pl2, and Pl3 received 23.3, 24.8, and 28.3 L, respectively. Similarly, in Al-Sahwa, plants Pl1, Pl2, and Pl3 received 27.8, 27.0, and 37.0 L, respectively. Finally in Al-Fuhaihil, plants Pl1, Pl2, and Pl3 received 34.8, 29.8, and 28.8 L, respectively. In all study regions, the required irrigation water was applied every day, and the emitters were operated for a time period that ranged between 28 and 44 min to deliver the required amount of irrigation water, based on the manufacture discharge rate (50 L h−1). Plants in the control treatment were not subject to irrigation; however, they were exposed to natural precipitation, which was limited during the growth season (<60 mm) and did not affect the treatments of the experiments.

2.4. Growth Parameters Assessment

Plant growth attributes including plant height, stem diameter, and crown size ratio were determined to estimate their response under the variable irrigation practice mode. Plant height was assessed by measuring the distance between the base of the main stem to the tallest shoot part, using calibrated measuring tape. Stem diameter was measured from the root collar, approximately 2–4 cm above soil, by using a vernier caliper. We used the Canopeo app from the App Store and captured a photo of the vegetative canopy using a mobile device; the camera was kept at approximately 60 cm from the top of the canopy to maintain an appropriate distance between it and the plant top, which is essential to minimize the overestimation of FGCC, because the canopy leaves were too close to the lens of the camera [36]. The Canopeo app used in this study is an automated color threshold picture analysis tool using red–green–blue (RGB) color values developed by Oklahoma State University for CC measurement [37]. It grants access to the operator to make managerial choices in the field. The FGCC ranges from 0 to 1 (no green to 100% green CC). Overall, the data was collected 12 times, after every 30 days, ranging from 25 June 2024 to 27 June 2025. This sampling technique collected data of the annual plant growth cycle under variable conditions, including seasons, temperature, rainfall, and photoperiod.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The collected data was analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to evaluate the effects of fertilizer type, plant species, and their interactions over time. Significance levels were assessed at a threshold of p ≤ 0.05. Interaction effects including Fertilizer × Species, Fertilizer × Time, and other relevant combinations, were also examined to evaluate their collective influence on plant growth. All statistical analysis were performed using SPSS software for Windows (version 18, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Influence of Irrigation Practices on Plant Height

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that irrigation practices and plant type both significantly (p < 0.05) improved plant height in the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions. Among irrigation types, the drip irrigation produced had a profound role in the increments of plant height where the height of Vachellia gerrardii and Haloxylon persicum increased by 115.94 and 142.11 cm, respectively, at both experimental sites. Similarly, time also had a significant effect (p < 0.05), reflecting a consistent increase in height over the 12 month observation period. Meanwhile in the Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf) region, the ANOVA results showed a highly significant effect of the irrigation systems on the average plant length (p < 0.01), but the plant type (PT) did not significantly affect stem length (p > 0.05), suggesting broadly similar height development patterns among the species tested under field conditions. Similarly, time (P) as an independent factor showed no significant impact on plant length (p > 0.05), indicating that, within the study period, temporal variation alone was not a determining factor for height growth (Table 2).
Moreover, a highly significant interaction was observed between the irrigation system and plant type (IRS × PT) which demonstrates that the influence of the irrigation method on plant height varied according to the shrub species type at all experimental locations. However, the interaction between irrigation type and time (IRS × P), plant type and time (PT × P) and the three-way interaction (IRS × PT × P) remained insignificant in the Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf) and Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) regions. But, in the Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) area, significant interactions (p < 0.05) were observed (Table 2).
Furthermore, in Figure 1a it is clearly evident that the height of PL1 notably increased approximately 108% from the first reading to the twelfth under the drip irrigation practice in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf). In the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, PL3 showed a maximum growth of plant height up to 63 and 132%, respectively, until the twelfth time, under drip irrigation, as mentioned in Figure 2.
In Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), the selected species were Raganum nudatum (Aldamran) (PL1), Atriplex leucoclada (Alrughal) (PL2), and Salsola villosa (Al-Rutha) (PL3). In the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madinah) region, they were Vachellia tortilis (Al-Samur) (PL1), Lycium shawii (Al-Awsag) (PL2) and Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL3), and for Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) the selected species were Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL1), Haloxylon persicum (Al-Ghada) (PL2) and Ziziphus nummularia (Sidir) (PL3).

3.2. Effect of Irrigation System on Stem Diameter

The stem diameter of shrub species was significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by irrigation type, time, and species. ANOVA results indicated that drip irrigation produced a substantial impact in the increments of stem diameter in species like Vachellia gerrardii and Haloxylon persicum, followed by sprinkler irrigation at all three experimental locations. The interactions between irrigation system × plant type (IRS × PT) and irrigation system × time (IRS × P) were highly significant (p < 0.05) indicating that species’ responses varied according to irrigation methods, and that these stem growth differences evolved over time in the Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions. However, at the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) site, the interactions of irrigation system × plant type (IRS × PT) and irrigation system × time (IRS × P) remained non-significant, which suggests that relative performance of irrigation treatments and species remained stable over time. The three-way interaction (IRS × PT × P) remained non-significant across all experimental locations, as shown in Table 3.
The stem diameter of PL1 showed great results, with the increment of 198%, followed by PL2 under a drip irrigation practice in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf). Meanwhile in the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, PL3 and PL2 had the maximum stem diameters, respectively, which increased by 125 and 320%, respectively. Overall, plant grown under the drip irrigation system showed maximum stem growth, followed by sprinkler irrigation and control, as mentioned in Figure 3.
In Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), the selected species were Raganum nudatum (Aldamran) (PL1), Atriplex leucoclada (Alrughal) (PL2), and Salsola villosa (Al-Rutha) (PL3). In the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madinah) region, they were Vachellia tortilis (Al-Samur) (PL1), Lycium shawii (Al-Awsag) (PL2) and Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL3), and for Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) the selected species were Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL1), Haloxylon persicum (Al-Ghada) (PL2) and Ziziphus nummularia (Sidir) (PL3).

3.3. Effect of Irrigation Practices on Crown Size Ratio

The results of the ANOVA revealed that irrigation types and time significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the crown size ratio (CSR) in the Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf) region. Meanwhile, at the same experimental site, plant type (PT) had no significant effect (p > 0.05) on crown size ratio, indicating that the studied species exhibited broadly similar crown-development patterns under open field conditions. However, in the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental regions, the irrigation system, plant type and time significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the crown size ratio, which reflects a clear temporal variation in crown size growth. Moreover, two-way interactions between IRS × PT, IRS × P, PT × P and IRS × PT × P were highly significant in Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) which indicate that the crown size ratio was jointly varied by irrigation method, species type, and sampling time (Table 4). The interactions between IRS × PT, IRS × P and PT × P remained non-significant at the Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf) site, which demonstrated no specific difference in the growth of CSR under applied conditions.
There was an irregular pattern of CSR observed across all three locations; for instance at the location in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), a steep peak was observed for PL2 under sprinkler irrigation at the 8th data collection reading, which simulternously dropped at the 11th reading. Similarly, in Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), PL3 showed a notable rise throughout the experiment under drip irrigation followed by PL1. Additionally, at the Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experiment site, a significant improvement was observed for PL2 under drip irrigation, which steadly declined at the eighth reading time and then showed a marginal rise; meanwhile, PL3 showed a significant rising trend throughout the period (Figure 4).
In Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), the selected species were Raganum nudatum (Aldamran) (PL1), Atriplex leucoclada (Alrughal) (PL2), and Salsola villosa (Al-Rutha) (PL3). In the Al-Sahwa (Al-Madinah) region, they were Vachellia tortilis (Al-Samur) (PL1), Lycium shawii (Al-Awsag) (PL2) and Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL3), and for Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq), the selected species were Vachellia gerrardii (Talih) (PL1), Haloxylon persicum (Al-Ghada) (PL2) and Ziziphus nummularia (Sidir) (PL3).

4. Discussion

The findings of the current field study revealed that variable irrigation practices substantially influenced shrubs’ physiological growth and development in different semi-arid regions of Saudi Arabia. Among applied irrigation systems, drip irrigation produced most effective results, which significantly increased plant height, stem diameter and crown size ratio at the experimental sites, including Al-Tamriyyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq). The height of the Haloxylon persicum shrub species notably increased under drip irrigation in the Al-Fuhaihil region. The increments of plants’ physiology attributes under the drip irrigation system in semi-arid regions may be attributed to the targeted water delivery systems, as drip irrigation ensures water availability to plants until the cellular levels increase [10,38,39,40]. Moreover, a controlled water supply to the plants resulted in maintaining adequate turgor pressure, which subsequently encourages cell expansion and meristematic activity [41,42]. Similar results were observed in a previous study, where a drip irrigation system significantly enhanced shrub growth in the rangeland of Saudi Arabia’s Tabuk Province; additionally, the same study also revealed that drip irrigation application also elevated seed bank germination, followed by the notable reduction in water loss through evaporation [43]. Similar results were observed by Cheng et al. and El-Keblawy where drip irrigation practice increased the size of a Dipterygium glaucum shrub plant by up to 10% in the desert area of the United Arab Emirates [44,45]. Besides this, it has been examined that optimum plant irrigation in the desert and semi-arid climatic conditions can minimize the production of plant antioxidants. Also, in a water-limited environment, shrub plants generally minimize their photosynthetic activity and stomatal conductance [46,47,48]. Moreover, controlled water availability like drip irrigation can influence plant transpiration rate and CO2 uptake, which ultimately resulted in higher biomass accumulation, including the increments of plant height, stem diameter and photosynthesis, etc. [23,49,50].
The study of Fan et al. [20] revealed that vertical drip irrigation in the Haloxylon ammodendron shrub species significantly elevated the plant height, stem diameter, and crown size up to 58, 39, and 44%, respectively, compared to conventional surface irrigation. This improvement of plant growth may be attributed to the optimization of soil moisture content, which not only reduces soil temperature but also optimizes root hydraulic conductivity under desert conditions [51,52]. Water stress conditions notably decreased the leaf area index and stomatal opening events, and subsequently stunted plant growth, which resulted in lower height and stem diameter of the Encelia farinose shrub [52,53,54]. Meanwhile, the improvement of the plant stem diameter may be linked to the elevation of cambial activity and secondary xylem formation, which boost the turgor pressure in the vascular tissues of plant [55]. Similar results were observed in the current study, where a considerable improvement was observed in the stem diameter of Rhanterium nudatum at Al-Tamriyyat under the drip irrigation system. The non-significant three-way interactions (IRS × PT × P) across sites indicate stable long-term responses as the sandy loam textured soil of Al-Fuhaihil facilitated the deep root proliferation. Moreover, previously it has also been reported that controlled irrigation can enhance the plant water storage capacity and improved hydraulic conductance, and such water storage abilities enable the plants to survive under periodic drought conditions and ultimately help the plants to maintain their stem strength [23,56]. The irregular growth of crown size ratio in shrub species may be attributed to the adaptive canopy adjustments for light interception and transpiration minimization [57]. Besides this, the three-way significant interaction between IRS × PT × P highlights the role of integrated approaches in the improvement of crown size without altering the density of the crown. Each shrub species contains a variable response rate and growth pattern; similarly, water availability also influences the crown growth according to each species. The dominant performance of Haloxylon persicum and Vachellia gerrardii under drip irrigation may be linked to better photosynthesis activity, which resulted in better light interception efficiency and carbon assimilation capacity [24,54,58]. Moreover, adequate water supply also improves plant root–shoot signaling through abscisic acid, which plays a crucial role in nutrient transportation from roots to shoots [59].
The physiological growth under variable shrub species across the experimental sites through drip irrigation may be linked with soil moisture content and water content that is available to the plant, which facilitates the cell division and their expansion in meristematic tissues [60]. Therefore, controlled and prolonged water availability has the ability to maintain optimum plant growth, regardless of time, season, and species type. Root hydraulic conductivity is another crucial aspect which is regulated by water supply; this has the ability to increase plant nutrient uptake efficiency, as consistent water supply enables the dissolution and transportation of essential plant nutrients, which are required for metabolic and structural growth [61,62,63]. Therefore, in the current study, the drip irrigation system produced the most significant results due to the dependent interaction of water with nutrient cycling. Throughout the experiment, a significant interaction was observed between species and irrigation, which highlights that each native shrub species required a specific irrigation type and requirement. Furthermore, a significant improvement was noticed in the growth of Haloxylon persicum, which has a substantial ability to restore degraded rangeland under semi-arid desert conditions. Similar results were observed by Yadeta et al. [64], where controlled irrigation notably maintained Vachellia tortilis growth with a significant rise in photosynthetic rate, forage production, and stem diameter under the semi-arid conditions.
Overall, rangeland shrub species’ growth improvement under irrigation practices provides a valuable insight into the adaptation and growth pattern of each species of variable semi-arid regions. However, future research should be conducted to examine the molecular and biochemical mechanisms, including hormonal signaling and gene expression pattern, to understand key mechanisms behind the plants’ morphological improvements under different irrigation systems. Besides this, long term analysis of plant growth coupled with root growth pattern and the nutrient composition of below-ground biomass will provide comprehensive details about plant responses under a controlled irrigation system. Overall, the integration of physiological monitoring, coupled with molecular analysis, will provide a comprehensive understanding of the plant response, as this strategic approach will provide valuable information to develop species-specific irrigation protocols in order to optimize rangeland restoration in arid and semi-arid regions of Saudi Arabia.

5. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

This comprehensive field study across three semi-arid regions of Saudi Arabia demonstrates that drip irrigation represents a transformative approach for rangeland restoration, with remarkable improvements including 142% plant height increase in Haloxylon persicum and 198% stem diameter expansion in Vachellia gerrardii compared to control treatments. The superior performance of drip irrigation over sprinkler systems across all measured parameters—plant height, stem diameter, and crown size ratio—can be attributed to targeted water delivery that optimizes turgor pressure, enhances cell elongation, and improves root hydraulic conductivity while minimizing water loss through evaporation and runoff. Site-specific variations observed in the Al-Tamiryyat, Al-Sahwa, and Al-Fuhaihil regions highlight the importance of site-specific restoration approaches by considering local soil type and species type; for instance, sandy loam soils facilitate root proliferation and water infiltration. Moreover, the significant interaction between irrigation × species further highlights the importance of species-specific water management protocols in rangeland restoration under semi-arid conditions. However, future research should prioritize elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying these physiological growth responses through genomic and metabolomic approaches, particularly by investigating gene expression patterns, hormonal signaling pathways (ABA, auxins, cytokinins), and stress-tolerance mechanisms that mediate drought adaptation. Long-term sustainable studies spanning 5–10 years are essential to further evaluate soil–soil–plant–water interactions in the restoration of rangeland, specifically to analyze climate adaptation responses and the carbon sequestration potential of these approaches. Additionally, integrated approaches like magnetized water application, coupled with nutrient fertilization, could optimize the restoration outcomes while addressing potential issues related to salinity under prolonged drip irrigation systems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.E., M.A.M., Z.A., H.M.I., M.A.H., A.A. and A.G.A.; methodology, S.E., M.A.M., Z.A., H.M.I., M.A.H., A.A. and A.G.A.; software, S.E., M.A.M., and A.G.; validation, A.G., and A.G.A.; formal analysis, S.E., M.A.A., and M.A.M.; investigation, S.E., A.G., M.A.A., and M.A.M.; resources, S.E., M.A.A., and M.A.M.; data curation, S.E., A.G., and M.A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, S.E., A.G., and A.G.A.; writing—review and editing, S.E., A.G., and A.G.A.; visualization, S.E., A.G., M.A.M., Z.A., H.M.I., M.A.H., A.A. and A.G.A.; supervision, A.G.A.; project administration, A.G.A.; funding acquisition, M.A.H., A.A. and A.G.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification, Saudi Arabia.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere appreciation to the National Center for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification, represented by the General Department of Rangelands, for their guidance and support throughout the implementation of the field trials on native rangeland seed propagation and broadcasting. Special thanks are also extended to King Saud University, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Soil Sciences, for their technical assistance and academic collaboration during the planning and execution phases of the research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Layout of experimental plots and seedling arrangement for irrigation treatments at the Al-Tamiryyat site (Al-Jouf). (b) Size seedling pit and setting of irrigation system at the Al-Tamiryyat site (Al-Jouf).
Figure 1. (a) Layout of experimental plots and seedling arrangement for irrigation treatments at the Al-Tamiryyat site (Al-Jouf). (b) Size seedling pit and setting of irrigation system at the Al-Tamiryyat site (Al-Jouf).
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Figure 2. Change in the average plant height during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
Figure 2. Change in the average plant height during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
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Figure 3. Response of plant stem diameter during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
Figure 3. Response of plant stem diameter during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
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Figure 4. Response of shrubs crown size ratio during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
Figure 4. Response of shrubs crown size ratio during the experiment’s period at (a) Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), (b) Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and (c) Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) experimental sites, respectively, under variable irrigation strategies.
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Table 1. Calculated values for the GWR for each plant in each region and the total amount of irrigation water added during the entire growing season, along with the amount of water added to each plot and the duration of the operation of the irrigation systems, based on the implemented schedule for irrigation.
Table 1. Calculated values for the GWR for each plant in each region and the total amount of irrigation water added during the entire growing season, along with the amount of water added to each plot and the duration of the operation of the irrigation systems, based on the implemented schedule for irrigation.
Location/PlantGWR
(m d−1)		Total Water Added
(m3 ha−1)		Drip Irrigation *Sprinkler Irrigation *
Amount per Plot (L)Operation Time ** (min)Amount per Plot (L)Operation Time ** (min)
Al-Tamiryyat:
  Aldamran0.00093306923.32874425
  Alrughal0.00099326724.83079226
  Al-Rutha0.00113372928.33490430
Al-Sahwa:
  Al-Samur0.00111366327.83388830
  Al-Awsag0.00148488437.044118440
  Talih0.00148488437.044118440
Al-Fuhaihil:
  Talih0.00139458734.842111237
  Al-Ghada0.00119392729.83695232
  Sidir0.00119392729.83695232
* Irrigation was applied every day and every other day for the drip and sprinkler systems, respectively, starting from the beginning of the implementation of irrigation treatment through to the end of the growing season (330 days). ** Operation time was calculated based on a discharge rate of 50 L h−1 for the drip irrigation emitters, and 1800 L h−1 for the rotary-spray sprinklers, respectively.
Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on plant height in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
Table 2. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on plant height in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
ANOVA of Plant Height inAl-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Valuep-Value
IRS264,035.41632,017.70850.1690.000
PT25879.8242939.9124.6070.011
P116084.110553.1010.8670.574
IRS × PT42,8944.2467236.06211.3380.000
IRS × P229558.982434.4990.6810.856
PT × P221846.76283.9440.1321.000
IRS × PT × P443316.33775.3710.1181.000
Residuals12614,250.552113.1
ANOVA of Plant Height inAl-Sahwa (Al-Madina)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS241,112.45220,556.22627.5650.000
PT280,311.48740,155.74353.8470.000
P1118,734.4241703.1292.2840.012
IRS × PT47924.2991981.0752.6570.034
IRS × P2216,956.662770.7571.0340.425
PT × P223233.744146.9880.1971.000
IRS × PT × P443036.33769.0080.0931.000
Residuals212158,095.310745.733
ANOVA of Plant Height inAl-SahwaAl-Fuhaihil (Thadiq)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Valuep-Value
IRS2519,213.935259,606.9671842.8000.000
PT26724.7223362.36123.8670.000
P1158,568.5625324.41537.7950.000
IRS × PT42841.397710.3495.0420.001
IRS × P2294,075.5604276.16230.3540.000
PT × P223347.200152.1451.0800.370
IRS × PT × P442736.99862.2040.4420.999
Residuals21630,429.302140.876
Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on stem diameter in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
Table 3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on stem diameter in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina), and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Valuep-Value
IRS26206.8543103.42776.9210.000
PT2263.480131.7403.2650.040
P111185.101107.7362.6700.003
IRS × PT4857.699214.4255.3150.000
IRS × P22607.78127.6260.6850.852
PT × P22106.8474.8570.1201.000
IRS × PT × P44148.0763.3650.0831.000
Residuals2168714.71240.346
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS21349.662674.83184.4170.000
PT2681.351340.67542.6160.000
P11424.62538.6024.8290.000
IRS × PT4417.965104.49113.0710.000
IRS × P22372.31416.9232.1170.003
PT × P22145.4906.6130.8270.690
IRS × PT × P4446.2231.0510.1311.000
Residuals2141710.7207.994
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-SahwaAl-Fuhaihil (Thadiq)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS220,569.99610,284.9981294.4550.000
PT2419.856209.92826.4210.000
P113400.137309.10338.9030.000
IRS × PT4217.79454.4486.8530.000
IRS × P223508.005159.45520.0690.000
PT × P2295.3584.3340.5460.953
IRS × PT × P4455.7291.2670.1591.000
Residuals2161716.2137.945
Table 4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on crown size ratio in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
Table 4. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the effect of irrigation types, plant type, and measurement period on crown size ratio in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf), Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina) and Al-Fuhaihil (Thadiq) regions, respectively.
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-Tamiryyat (Al-Jouf)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS219.7279.8647.3390.001
PT28.0014.0012.9770.053
P1161.6245.6024.1680.000
IRS × PT411.3882.8472.1180.080
IRS × P2240.0041.8181.3530.141
PT × P2222.6631.0300.7660.765
IRS × PT × P4448.2741.0970.8160.787
Residuals216290.3021.344
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-Sahwa (Al-Madina)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS2178.84489.42295.8140.000
PT237.66418.83220.1780.000
P1181.5657.4157.9450.000
IRS × PT457.08914.27215.2930.000
IRS × P2280.2193.6463.9070.000
PT × P2242.7411.9432.0820.004
IRS × PT × P4471.2961.6201.7360.005
Residuals214199.7230.933
ANOVA of Plant Height in Al-SahwaAl-Fuhaihil (Thadiq)
Source of VariationdfSum of SquaresMean SquareF-Value p-Value
IRS2190.23495.117220.9780.000
PT23.2421.6213.7660.025
P1141.0833.7358.6770.000
IRS × PT44.7861.1962.7800.028
IRS × P2267.9753.0907.1780.000
PT × P2217.9980.8181.9010.011
IRS × PT × P4435.5060.8071.8750.002
Residuals21692.9740.430
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Ezzat, S.; Gaiballa, A.; Majrashi, M.A.; Alasmary, Z.; Ibrahim, H.M.; Harbi, M.A.; Abldubise, A.; Alqahtani, M.A.; Alghamdi, A.G. Assessment of the Effect of Applying Sustainable Irrigation Systems on the Growth of Three Selected Rangelands’ Plants in Semi-Arid Areas of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9098. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209098

AMA Style

Ezzat S, Gaiballa A, Majrashi MA, Alasmary Z, Ibrahim HM, Harbi MA, Abldubise A, Alqahtani MA, Alghamdi AG. Assessment of the Effect of Applying Sustainable Irrigation Systems on the Growth of Three Selected Rangelands’ Plants in Semi-Arid Areas of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability. 2025; 17(20):9098. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209098

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ezzat, Sahar, Abdelaziz Gaiballa, Mosaed A. Majrashi, Zafer Alasmary, Hesham M. Ibrahim, Meshal Abdullah Harbi, Abdullah Abldubise, Munirah Ayid Alqahtani, and Abdulaziz G. Alghamdi. 2025. "Assessment of the Effect of Applying Sustainable Irrigation Systems on the Growth of Three Selected Rangelands’ Plants in Semi-Arid Areas of Saudi Arabia" Sustainability 17, no. 20: 9098. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209098

APA Style

Ezzat, S., Gaiballa, A., Majrashi, M. A., Alasmary, Z., Ibrahim, H. M., Harbi, M. A., Abldubise, A., Alqahtani, M. A., & Alghamdi, A. G. (2025). Assessment of the Effect of Applying Sustainable Irrigation Systems on the Growth of Three Selected Rangelands’ Plants in Semi-Arid Areas of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 17(20), 9098. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209098

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