Decarbonizing a Sailboat Using Solar Panels, Wind Turbines, and Hydro-Generation for Zero-Emission Propulsion
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Baseline Vessel and System Definition
2.1.1. System Engineering Framework
2.1.2. Propulsion and Electrical Demand
2.2. Energy Modeling and Validation Framework
2.2.1. Marine Qualification and Durability
2.2.2. Energy Management System (EMS)
2.2.3. Environmental Datasets
- Wind: Summer breezes typically reach 4–10 knots during the day and decline overnight.
- Solar: Typical clear-sky irradiance in July reaches (~800 W/m2 peak) during the day and declines over ~15 h of daylight.
2.3. Simulation Framework and Scenarios
- Scenario 1: Coastal Day Sail (Tuzla–Büyükada, ~23 h). Departure at 50% SoC, with sailing, anchoring overnight, and return.
- Scenario 2: Extended Coastal Sail (Tuzla–Mudanya, ~22 h). Departure at 60% SoC, overnight sail with mixed conditions.
- Scenario 3: Emergency No-Wind Transit. Full SoC, motoring only, zero wind input.
2.3.1. Scenario Conditions
2.3.2. Validation and Assumptions
- SoC never below 20% in Scenarios 1–2;
- All hotel and propulsion loads met without shore charging;
- Energy balance sustained under conservative mid-latitude conditions.
2.4. Component Assumptions
- Photovoltaics (PV): module efficiency 19%; balance-of-system derate 0.85; temperature coefficient −0.38%·°C−1; shading factor 0.90 (day-average); tilt equal to coach-roof angle.
- Micro-wind: manufacturer power-curve with cut-in at 3 m·s−1, rated 12 m·s−1; air-density corrected to 1.225 kg·m−3; yaw/mast-shadowing factor 0.8.
- Hydro-generation: dedicated turbines Cp,eff = 0.35–0.45 as a function of boat speed; regenerating prop uses a four-quadrant map derived from published experimental data; added resistance penalty recorded and included.
- Drivetrain and storage: motor efficiency 0.90–0.94 (speed-dependent); inverter/controller 0.96–0.98; battery round-trip 0.92; usable SoC window 20–95%; charge ≤ 0.5 C; discharge ≤ 1 C.
3. Results
3.1. Scenario 1: Typical Coastal Day Sail (Tuzla–Büyükada Round Trip, ~23 h)
3.2. Scenario 2: Extended Passage (Tuzla–Mudanya Round Trip, ~100 nm, ~30 h)
3.3. Scenario 3: No-Wind Emergency Motor Transit
3.4. Comparative Analysis
- Scenario 1: Energy balanced over 23 h; battery SoC stable (~46–60%).
- Scenario 2: Strained but feasible over 30 h with night calms; SoC dipped to 25% before recovery.
- Scenario 3: Battery-only endurance ~30–40 nmi, extendable with solar.
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations, Uncertainties, and Validity of Findings
4.2. Energy Management and Operational Strategies
- Sailing vs. motoring: Sailing whenever possible eliminates propulsion demand and simultaneously enables hydro-generation. Excess wind, instead of being utilized as additional speed, can be harvested as electrical energy, consistent with observations from the wind-assist literature [1]. Minak similarly demonstrated that sailing yachts equipped with solar electric systems could reach high fractions of energy autonomy, provided that operators prioritize wind propulsion over motor use [5].
- Load scheduling: Heavy loads, such as water heating, should coincide with mid-day solar peaks. This practice echoes the findings of Ma’arif et al., who emphasized the importance of integrating behavioral strategies with hybrid electric fishing fleets to maximize efficiency [8].
- Nighttime prudence: Efficient hotel loads (e.g., LED lighting) and avoiding high-demand appliances at night allow batteries to maintain safe reserves.
- Battery reserve: Maintaining SoC above 20% is advised for both safety and longevity. Our simulations respected this threshold, with the lowest SoC at 25% in Scenario 2. Smart EMS control could further enforce such thresholds, as demonstrated in recent hybrid ship studies emphasizing predictive load sharing [16,42].
4.3. Comparison with Conventional Diesel Systems and Component-Level Performance
- Scenario 1: A diesel yacht would consume several liters of fuel for harbor maneuvers and hotel loads, emitting GHGs and producing noise. By contrast, the renewable yacht used no fuel, maintained near-silent operation, and required no charging.
- Scenario 2: In a prolonged calm, a diesel yacht might burn 20–30 L of fuel overnight, emitting ~25 kg of CO2. Our system, while requiring careful management, completed the voyage without emissions. This demonstrates that the renewable yacht demands a change in operational mindset—accepting speed adjustments and voyage planning in exchange for full sustainability.
- Scenario 3: Emergency motoring was feasible for 30–40 nmi, equivalent to 4–5 h at cruising speed. While less than the near-unlimited range of a diesel engine, this capability provides a safety margin consistent with typical cruising needs.
- Solar panels require careful placement to minimize shading from rigging. Multiple MPPT controllers mitigate partial shading losses.
- Wind turbines may be noisy and yield modest power at low wind speeds. Yet, they provide valuable overnight and high-latitude generation, as highlighted by Animah et al. in their patrol boat hybrid feasibility study [45].
- Hydro-generators and regeneration of the main propeller introduce added resistance and potential speed penalties during energy recovery. In this study, these penalties are addressed qualitatively and through bounding assumptions in the energy model, because the primary outcome is energy sufficiency rather than speed optimization. Retractable designs and optimized regenerative propellers minimize penalties [22]. Real-world devices such as Watt&Sea confirm outputs of 500–600 W at 6–7 knots, comparable to our assumptions.
- Batteries require robust EMS and safety systems. A 20 kWh pack (~200 kg) is practical for a 12.5 m yacht, with weight centrally located to preserve stability. Long-term degradation (10–20% over 10 years) must be considered in system margins.
- Solar yachts: Minak demonstrated simulation-based autonomy for solar-powered leisure craft, reporting notable reductions in reliance on shore power [5]. Our results confirm combining hydro and solar extends autonomy beyond solar-only systems.
- Wind-assist on cargo vessels: Plessas and Papanikolaou reported 20% emission reductions in a VLCC with wind propulsion devices [1]. Our study scales the principle down: sails and hydro effectively displaced the need for auxiliary engines.
- Hybrid fishing fleets: Ma’arif et al. concluded that electrification can “significantly reduce” fuel use and emissions in small fishing fleets [8]. Similarly, our findings show that moderate-scale leisure yachts can also achieve near-total decarbonization through integrated systems.
- Smart ship energy control: Geertsma et al. highlighted the role of model predictive control in optimizing multi-source hybrid systems [16]. Our EMS strategy embodies this principle, allocating renewable inputs dynamically to loads and storage.
4.4. Typical Mid-Latitude Coastal Conditions as a Stress-Test Environment
4.5. Broader Implications and Scalability for Sustainable Yachting
- Eco-tour boats and small ferries can integrate larger solar arrays and higher-capacity batteries to achieve near-complete autonomy on short coastal routes, as shown in trials of solar ferries in Bangladesh [12]. Zito et al. reported lifetime fuel savings for a solar-assisted ferry, illustrating strong economic drivers [48].
- Fishing fleets could reduce emissions substantially through hybrid electrification; Ma’arif et al. emphasized efficiency and resilience benefits [8].
- Large commercial vessels such as cargo and passenger ships are unlikely to be powered solely by renewables. Still, wind-assist, solar integration, and battery peak-shaving can provide incremental but meaningful reductions, aligning with environmental goals [49].
4.6. Summary of Findings, Limitations, and Future Work
- Multi-source renewable integration ensures energy self-sufficiency for a 12.5 m sailing yacht, even in low-resource conditions.
- Complementary sources (solar by day, hydro under sail, and wind at anchor) stabilize energy availability.
- Scenario simulations validated the feasibility for both short and extended voyages.
- Conservative “stress-test” conditions imply stronger performance in sunnier or windier regions.
- Results align with and extend recent findings on solar electric yachts, wind-assisted cargo vessels, and hybrid fishing fleets.
- Instrumenting an on-water demonstrator for speed-loss vs. harvested-power characterization;
- Logging in situ battery temperatures/SoC windows to model aging and replacement intervals with higher fidelity;
- Executing year-round routes (including cloudy/low-sun and high-latitude seasons) to refine EMS policies and re-size solar/hydro arrays accordingly [3];
- Integrating fuel cells or hydrogen for backup power [19];
- Adopting solar sails or PV-coated composites for increased generation area;
- Embedding AI-driven EMS to forecast weather and schedule loads dynamically, while conducting lifecycle assessments to quantify embodied vs. operational carbon impacts, as emphasized by Wang et al. [50].
5. Conclusions
- This study presents a documented modeling and validation framework for yacht-scale multi-source integration, including transparent efficiency assumptions and sensitivity bounds.
- It provides evidence that routine coastal passages can be completed with zero operational emissions while maintaining conservative SoC margins, and that a four-hour “get-home” endurance on batteries is achievable at modest speed with solar assist.
- The quantified source contributions show the complementary roles of PV (daytime dominance), hydro-generation under sail, and secondary wind input, enabling stable SoC in mid-latitude conditions.
- The architecture is transferable to small commercial platforms, such as eco-tour vessels and day ferries, where predictable routes and layovers can further enhance renewable utilization.
- Hydrodynamic energy-harvesting settings should be co-optimized with voyage time, using speed-loss budgets to tune regeneration set-points.
- Marine-grade reliability, lifecycle battery health, and techno-economic performance must be addressed in deployment planning to align with decarbonization targets.
- Robust Energy Balance: Across three representative scenarios, the vessel maintained safe battery reserves while completing typical voyages. In Scenario 1 (day sail, 23 h), batteries never fell below ~45% SoC, confirming resilience under routine conditions. In Scenario 2 (extended voyage, ~36 h with overnight calm), the system drew heavily on storage but recovered with subsequent solar and hydro input, finishing above the 25% SoC reserve threshold. In Scenario 3 (pure motor transit), the yacht achieved over 4 h of continuous motoring (>10 nautical miles) with a significant margin remaining, aided by daylight solar contribution.
- True Zero-Emission Operation: At no point did the simulated yacht require fossil fuel or external charging. Propulsion and auxiliary needs were entirely covered by renewable generation and storage, confirming practical energy self-sufficiency. This outcome not only eliminates greenhouse gas emissions but also reduces noise, vibration, and operating costs. These outcomes provide empirical support for full energy self-sufficiency in small craft—comparable to recent studies of hybrid and all electric ferries and eco-boats that often still rely on shore power or backup engines.
- Synergistic Integration: The combined use of solar, wind, and hydro sources proved more effective than reliance on a single technology. Solar arrays supplied consistent daytime energy, wind turbines offered low-level but continuous generation when conditions permitted, and hydro-generators transformed sailing motion into electrical power. The electric propulsion motor further acted as a generator under sail. The battery bank provided essential buffering, ensuring an uninterrupted supply despite resource variability.
- Operational Practicality: The scenarios reflected realistic cruising itineraries—short coastal passages, overnight voyages, and emergency motoring. Results show that normal recreational use can be fully sustained without diesel. The operational profile does demand prudent energy management, such as scheduling heavy loads during mid-day solar peaks and conserving at night, yet this mirrors traditional sailing practices of weather-aware planning. The absence of fuel dependence or need for marina charging expands autonomy and facilitates remote cruising.
5.1. Future Work and Recommendations
- Experimental Validation: Sea trials on a prototype vessel should be conducted to verify real-world performance, capture degradation effects, and refine system design (e.g., propeller optimization for regeneration, solar shading mitigation, and structural durability of hydro-turbine mounts).
- Scaling Studies: Application of the framework to different vessel classes, from small leisure boats to larger yachts and ferries, is warranted. Scaling analyses will clarify economic trade-offs, spatial constraints, and system dimensioning across vessel sizes. For motor-only craft (e.g., ferries and eco-tour boats), hybrid renewable setups may provide substantial reductions aligned with decarbonization targets.
- Reliability and Economics: Long-term durability of batteries, inverters, and renewable devices under marine conditions requires assessment. Comparative lifecycle costing should include capital investment, avoided fuel and maintenance expenses, and potential incentives such as carbon credits or green marina programs.
- Advanced Energy Management: Incorporating predictive control and weather-aware optimization could significantly extend endurance. For example, AI-based energy management could pre-emptively store surplus when forecasts predict calm periods or strategically deploy hydro-turbines when higher wind is expected.
- Crew Training and Adoption: Effective adoption depends on awareness and familiarity. Training programs, demonstration projects, and integration into yachting education can accelerate acceptance. Early adopters and retrofitted prototypes can serve as ambassadors for renewable-integrated sailing.
5.2. Closing Statement
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
EMS | Energy Management System |
GHG | Greenhouse Gas |
IMO | International Maritime Organization |
KISS | Keep It Sustainable and Smart |
MPPT | Maximum Power Point Tracking |
nmi | Nautical Miles |
PV | Photovoltaic |
SoC | State of Charge |
References
- Plessas, T.; Papanikolaou, A. Multi-Objective Optimization of Ship Design for the Effect of Wind Propulsion. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mofor, L.; Nuttall, P.; Neweil, A. Renewable Energy Options for Shipping. January 2015. Available online: https://www.irena.org/ (accessed on 24 August 2025).
- Koumaniotis, E.K.; Kanellos, F.D. Optimal Routing and Sustainable Operation Scheduling of Large Ships with Integrated Full-Electric Propulsion. Sustainability 2024, 16, 10662. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mallouppas, G.; Yfantis, E.A. Decarbonization in Shipping industry: A review of research, technology development, and innovation proposals. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Minak, G. Solar Energy-Powered Boats: State of the Art and Perspectives. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moon, H.S.; Park, W.Y.; Hendrickson, T.; Phadke, A.; Popovich, N. Exploring the cost and emissions impacts, feasibility and scalability of battery electric ships. Nat. Energy 2024, 10, 41–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aksöz, A.; Asal, B.; Golestan, S.; Gençtürk, M.; Oyucu, S.; Biçer, E. Electrification in Maritime Vessels: Reviewing Storage Solutions and Long-Term Energy Management. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 5259. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma’arif, S.; Budiyanto, M.A.; Sunaryo; Theotokatos, G. Progress in hybrid and electric propulsion technologies for fishing vessels: An extensive review and prospects. Ocean Eng. 2024, 316, 120017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Akiyama, T.; Bousquet, J.F.; Roncin, K.; Muirhead, G.; Whidden, A. An engineering design approach for the development of an autonomous sailboat to cross the atlantic ocean. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8046. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Barry, K. World’s First Circumnavigation By Solar Powered Ship A Success|WIRED. Available online: https://www.wired.com/2012/05/worlds-first-circumnavigation-by-solar-powered-ship-a-success/ (accessed on 24 August 2025).
- Suardi, S.; Maulana, M.K.; Ikhwani, R.J.; Pawara, M.U.; Mahmuddin, F.; Tasrief, M. Design and Implementation of Solar Cells as an Alternative Power Source for Pinisi Ships. Comput. Exp. Res. Mater. Renew. Energy 2024, 7, 93–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chowdhury, T.H.; Islam, R.; Alam, F.; Murad, E.A.; Hasan, R.; Lipu, H.R. Design of a boat powered by solar energy with an 180° rotating solar tracking system. SEU J. Electr. Electron. Eng. 2024, 4, 9–14. [Google Scholar]
- Eastlack, E.; Faiss, E.; Sauter, R.; Klingenberg, S.; Witt, M.; Szymanski, S.; Lidqvist, A.; Olsson, P. Zero emission super-yacht. In Proceedings of the 2019 14th International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies, EVER 2019, Monte-Carlo, Monaco, 8–10 May 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Formosa, W.; Sant, T.; Muscat-Fenech, C.D.M.; Figari, M. Wind-Assisted Ship Propulsion of a Series 60 Ship Using a Static Kite Sail. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bucci, V.; Mauro, F.; Vicenzutti, A.; Bosich, D.; Sulligoi, G. Hybrid-electric solutions for the propulsion of a luxury sailing yacht. In Proceedings of the 2020 2nd IEEE International Conference on Industrial Electronics for Sustainable Energy Systems (IESES), Cagliari, Italy, 1–3 September 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Geertsma, R.D.; Negenborn, R.R.; Visser, K.; Hopman, J.J. Design and control of hybrid power and propulsion systems for smart ships: A review of developments. Appl. Energy 2017, 194, 30–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alfonsin, V.; Suarez, A.; Urrejola, S.; Miguez, J.; Sanchez, A. Integration of several renewable energies for internal combustion engine substitution in a commercial sailboat. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2015, 40, 6689–6701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Coppola, T.; Micoli, L.; Russo, R. Concept design and feasibility study of propulsion system for yacht: Innovative hybrid propulsion system fueled by methanol. In Proceedings of the 2022 International Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion, SPEEDAM 2022, Sorrento, Italy, 22–24 June 2022; pp. 683–688. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Bernardo, R.; Di Cecca, B.; Coppola, T.; Spazzafumo, G.; Speranza, D. Preliminary design of a 75 m Mega Yacht with diesel —Electric hybrid propulsion powered with hydrogen FCs. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2024, 137, 917–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Begovic, E.; Bertorello, C.; De Luca, F.; Rinauro, B. KISS (Keep It Sustainable and Smart): A Research and Development Program for a Zero-Emission Small Crafts. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 10, 16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ma, R.; Wang, Z.; Wang, K.; Zhao, H.; Jiang, B.; Liu, Y.; Xing, H.; Huang, L. Evaluation Method for Energy Saving of Sail-Assisted Ship Based on Wind Resource Analysis of Typical Route. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 789. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Calcagni, D.; Mancini, A.; Baffigo, R. Innovative dual-function SAIL-POD by Velettrica: Experimental assessment and performance calibration. J. Mar. Sci. Technol. 2025, 30, 392–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekinci, S.; Alvar, M. Horizontal axis marine current turbine design for wind-electric hybrid sailing boat. Brodogradnja 2017, 68, 127–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sang, Y.; Ding, Y.; Sui, C.; Xiang, L. Energy analysis of battery/PV-powered all-electric ship in various operational conditions. Ocean Eng. 2025, 340, 122257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Trincas, G.; Braidotti, L.; Vicenzutti, A.; Tavagnutti, A.A.; Cooke, C.M.; Chalfant, J.; Bucci, V.; Chryssostomidis, C.; Sulligoi, G. Integration of the Power Corridor Concept in the Early-Phase Design of Electric Naval Ships using Mathematical Design Models. In Proceedings of the 15th International Marine Design Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2–7 June 2024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Degiuli, N.; Martić, I. CFD Applications in Ship and Offshore Hydrodynamics. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1926. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, W.; Wang, B.; Ke, W.; Shen, S.; Wu, X. Research on Photovoltaic Power Generation Characteristics of Small Ocean Observation Unmanned Surface Vehicles. Energies 2024, 17, 3699. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, Z.; Qu, W.; Zhuo, J. Optimization of Energy Consumption in Ship Propulsion Control under Severe Sea Conditions. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kolodziejski, M.; Michalska-Pozoga, I. Battery Energy Storage Systems in Ships’ Hybrid/Electric Propulsion Systems. Energies 2023, 16, 1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vakili, S.; Insel, M.; Singh, S.; Ölçer, A. Decarbonizing Domestic and Short-Sea Shipping: A Systematic Review and Transdisciplinary Pathway for Emerging Maritime. Sustainability 2025, 17, 7294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ekinci, S.; Alvar, M. Sıfır emisyonlu yenilenebilir enerji üreten yelkenli bir tekne için sualtı türbin tasarımı. Dicle Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Mühendislik Dergisi 2016, 7, 537–550. [Google Scholar]
- Velásquez, L.; Rengifo, J.; Saldarriaga, A.; Rubio-Clemente, A.; Chica, E. Optimization of Vertical-Axis Hydrokinetic Turbines: Study of Various Geometric Configurations Using the Response Surface Methodology and Multi-Criteria Decision Matrices. Processes 2025, 13, 1950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sakamoto, L.; Fukui, T.; Morinishi, K. Blade Dimension Optimization and Performance Analysis of the 2-D Ugrinsky Wind Turbine. Energies 2022, 15, 2478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Astolfi, D.; Pandit, R.; Lombardi, A.; Terzi, L. Multivariate Data-Driven Models for Wind Turbine Power Curves including Sub-Component Temperatures. Energies 2022, 16, 165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sadeghi, R.; Parenti, M.; Memme, S.; Fossa, M.; Morchio, S. A Review and Comparative Analysis of Solar Tracking Systems. Energies 2025, 18, 2553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Otsason, R.; Tapaninen, U. Decarbonizing City Water Traffic: Case of Comparing Electric and Diesel-Powered Ferries. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tay, Z.Y.; Konovessis, D. Sustainable energy propulsion system for sea transport to achieve United Nations sustainable development goals: A review. Discov. Sustain. 2023, 4, 1–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Albuquerque, B.S.; Tostes, M.E.d.L.; Bezerra, U.H.; Carvalho, C.C.M.d.M.; Nascimento, A.L.L.D. Use of Distributed Energy Resources Integrated with the Electric Grid in the Amazon: A Case Study of the Universidade Federal do Pará Poraquê Electric Boat Using a Digital Twin. Machines 2024, 12, 803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Elkafas, A.G.; Rivarolo, M.; Barberis, S.; Massardo, A.F. Feasibility Assessment of Alternative Clean Power Systems onboard Passenger Short-Distance Ferry. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ge, Y.; Zhang, J.; Zhou, K.; Zhu, J.; Wang, Y. Research on Energy Management for Ship Hybrid Power System Based on Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ba, L.; Tangour, F.; El Abbassi, I.; Absi, R. Analysis of Digital Twin Applications in Energy Efficiency: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2025, 17, 3560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krčum, M.; Gudelj, A.; Tomas, V. Optimal design of ship’s hybrid power system for efficient energy. Trans. Marit. Sci. 2018, 7, 23–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bortuzzo, V.; Bertagna, S.; Bucci, V. Mitigation of CO2 Emissions from Commercial Ships: Evaluation of the Technology Readiness Level of Carbon Capture Systems. Energies 2023, 16, 3646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, S.; Jeon, H.; Park, C.; Kim, J. Lifecycle Environmental Benefits with a Hybrid Electric Propulsion System Using a Control Algorithm for Fishing Boats in Korea. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2022, 10, 1202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Animah, I.; Adjei, P.; Djamesi, E.K. Techno-economic feasibility assessment model for integrating hybrid renewable energy systems into power systems of existing ships: A case study of a patrol boat. J. Mar. Eng. Technol. 2022, 22, 22–37. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Maydison; Zhang, H.; Han, N.; Oh, D.; Jang, J. Optimized Diesel–Battery Hybrid Electric Propulsion System for Fast Patrol Boats with Global Warming Potential Reduction. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 1071. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellabban, O.; Abu-Rub, H.; Blaabjerg, F. Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 39, 748–764. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zito, T.; Park, C.; Jeong, B. Life cycle assessment and economic benefits of a solar assisted short route ferry operating in the Strait of Messina. J. Int. Marit. Safety, Environ. Aff. Shipp. 2022, 6, 24–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zenié, A.; Lam, K.; Jobson, R.; Hinton, S.; Vasileiadis, N.; Scarbrough, T.; Condes, S.; Powell, N.; Wasil, J. Pathways to Propulsion Decarbonisation for the Recreational Marine Industry Synopsis Report. 2023. Available online: https://www.icomia.org/product/pathways-to-propulsion-decarbonisation-for-the-recreational-marine-industry-full-report-purchase-application/ (accessed on 24 August 2025).
- Wang, Z.; Ma, Y.; Sun, Y.; Tang, H.; Cao, M.; Xia, R.; Han, F. Optimizing Energy Management and Case Study of Multi-Energy Coupled Supply for Green Ships. J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2023, 11, 1286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Parameter | Value |
---|---|
Overall Length | 12.52 m |
Hull Length | 11.99 m |
Waterline Length | 11.42 m |
Beam (Width) | 4.20 m |
Draft | 2.14 m |
Displacement (Average) | 11.20 t |
Engine Power | 41.9 kW |
Fresh Water Tank | 475 L |
Fuel Tank | 210 L |
Total Sail Area | 85.80 m2 |
Scenario | PV Gen. | Wind Gen. | Hydro Gen. | Total Gen. | Propulsion | Hotel Loads | Total Used | Δ Battery (End-Start) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Day Sail (8 h, mod. wind) | 4.8 | 1.5 | 4.6 | 10.9 | 9.5 | 2.0 | 11.5 | −1.5 kWh (battery slight discharge) |
2. Extended (24 h, mixed) | 6.5 | 2.2 | 10.0 | 18.7 | 12.0 | 3.5 | 15.5 | +3.2 kWh (battery net charge) |
3. No-Wind (4 h, motoring) | 3.0 | 0 | 0 | 3.0 | 20.0 | 0.8 | 20.8 | −17.8 kWh (battery discharge) |
Source/Load | Energy (kWh) | Share (%) |
---|---|---|
Solar PV | 5.5 | 45 |
Hydro/regen | 4.0 | 40 |
Wind turbines | 0.5 | 5 |
Propulsion | 5.8 | 56 |
Hotel loads | 4.5 | 44 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Nomak, H.S.; Çiçek, İ. Decarbonizing a Sailboat Using Solar Panels, Wind Turbines, and Hydro-Generation for Zero-Emission Propulsion. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9050. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209050
Nomak HS, Çiçek İ. Decarbonizing a Sailboat Using Solar Panels, Wind Turbines, and Hydro-Generation for Zero-Emission Propulsion. Sustainability. 2025; 17(20):9050. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209050
Chicago/Turabian StyleNomak, Hamdi Sena, and İsmail Çiçek. 2025. "Decarbonizing a Sailboat Using Solar Panels, Wind Turbines, and Hydro-Generation for Zero-Emission Propulsion" Sustainability 17, no. 20: 9050. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209050
APA StyleNomak, H. S., & Çiçek, İ. (2025). Decarbonizing a Sailboat Using Solar Panels, Wind Turbines, and Hydro-Generation for Zero-Emission Propulsion. Sustainability, 17(20), 9050. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17209050