An Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Management in Ghana: A Scoping Review of Challenges, Opportunities, and Technology Options

Abstract

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management is a key issue for Ghana’s cities, affecting public health, environmental sustainability, and socioeconomic development. This paper presents a research analysis of academic databases and literature repositories on Ghana’s existing MSW management system techniques, issues, and possibilities, complemented by site visits and engagement with diverse actors in the system. It also seeks to incorporate comparative analyses from Sub-Saharan African countries to inform a proposed Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) framework for environmental sustainability and public health. This review included peer-reviewed, English-language, full-text articles and relevant organisational documents published between 2000 and 2024, focusing on geographically and thematically relevant MSW management content, while excluding the irrelevant, non-authoritative grey literature and duplicates. Although there have been improvements in certain areas, Ghana’s MSW management system is still marked by inadequate finance, infrastructure, public awareness, weak regulations, and informal waste sector exclusion. However, opportunities exist in leveraging technologies like engineered landfills, composting, MRFs, and diverse WtE options. Comparative analyses reveal shared challenges, as well as emerging sustainable practices and the vital role of the informal waste sector, across Sub-Saharan Africa. The findings highlight important information regarding the trends in MSW generation, collection methods, treatment technologies, and disposal strategies. With further exploration on the constraints and prospects for MSW management in Ghana, it is recommended that an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) approach with innovative technologies is the way forward to address the challenges and improve MSW management practices in Ghana.

1. Introduction

The 2024 Global Waste Management Outlook reported that the current challenges in managing municipal solid waste (MSW) include approximately 2.7 billion people lacking access to MSW collection; only about 40% of MSW is collected, which is either burned or dumped openly [1]. Globally, solid waste generation rates have risen since 2020, and the world was estimated to generate about 2.24 billion tonnes (approx. 0.8 kg/person/day), which is expected to rise by 73% to 3.88 billion tonnes in 2050 [2,3], making the management of solid waste a global issue driven by rapid urbanisation, inadequate infrastructure, and evolving consumption patterns [4,5].

MSW management is the supervised handling of MSW from the source to the final disposal [6]. That includes collection, transfer, resource recovery, recycling, and treatment. MSW management is typically influenced by several factors, including seasonal changes, people’s lifestyles, and the community’s geographical location [7]. MSW management is a problem for both developed and developing countries, with an expected nominal and significant growth in waste generation [2,8]. Developing countries, especially those with low or moderate incomes, including Ghana, face more complex MSW issues [8], including inadequate infrastructure, low public awareness, and ineffective policies and regulations. Additionally, the impact of improper MSW management is greater in developing countries than in developed countries [9].

Ghana’s MSW management has been a persistent and pressing issue for years. The daily MSW generated in most cities in Ghana is steadily increasing due to high population density and active production and consumption, which necessitate immediate and effective management within the jurisdiction of municipal authorities. Due to the growing volume of MSW generated, government waste agencies and privately owned waste businesses responsible for MSW collection and disposal have been unable to effectively manage it, resulting in the indiscriminate dumping of MSW in communities and cities. Even the MSW collected by government agencies and privately owned solid waste companies ends up in landfills (not engineered landfills), with a small percentage sent to the treatment facilities. Currently, MSW management in Ghana is characterised by a heavy reliance on traditional, often unsustainable, disposal practices, such as open dumping and uncontrolled landfills. Although stakeholders and the government usually take the initiative to help curb the solid waste problem at various levels (including national, municipal, and district levels) by allocating funds and resources and developing some treatment facilities, the issues remain unsolved and continue to be a nightmare and major crisis for the country.

Most cities in Ghana continue to suffer from poor environmental and sanitation conditions, posing a serious threat to public health [10]. This could be because the government and stakeholders in Ghana focus mainly on collecting MSW rather than on how well the MSW can be disposed of after it is collected. The World Health Organization (WHO) has often linked the dangers of inappropriate MSW disposal to health issues for residents living in the vicinity [11,12]. The improper disposal of MSW frequently results in infections transmitted through water or air. Non-biodegradable solid waste, such as cans and bottles, provides a haven for flies and mosquitoes that carry diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea, intestinal worms, typhoid, malaria, dysentery, and others [10,12]. The 2022 annual report of the Ghana Ministry of Health reveals that malaria has remained the primary factor in more than 20% of all issues found in the outpatient department between 2017 and 2021. Moreover, a death rate of 127 out of 145,587 children under the age of five hospitalised with malaria in 2021 represents a fatality rate of 0.09% [13]. Additionally, most outpatient department cases in Ghana are attributed to poor environmental sanitation resulting from improper MSW disposal [13].

The objectives of this paper are to achieve the following:

• Thoroughly examine Ghana’s MSW management system, considering its various challenges, emerging opportunities, and the applicability of advanced technology options.
• Propose a framework to enhance environmental sustainability and public health by shifting towards Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) systems.
• Incorporate comparative analyses from other Sub-Saharan African countries.

The objective of this scoping review paper is to address the research questions concerning Ghana’s MSW management practices, challenges, and opportunities; to compare its technology strategies with those of other Sub-Saharan African countries; and to inform the development of a sustainable ISWM framework.

Therefore, this review paper offers valuable insights for researchers, academics, policymakers, and stakeholders on MSW management systems in Ghana.

2. Materials and Methods

The methodology for this scoping review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines. The scoping review followed a highly structured and organised methodology, despite not having a formally registered protocol, to analyse MSW management in Ghana, focusing on its challenges, opportunities, and the applicability of technology options. Clear research questions and defined selection criteria drove the scoping review. A comprehensive search using authoritative databases and a wide range of keywords was performed, and the literature was excluded through a transparent, multi-stage process. This rigorous approach ensures the trustworthiness, reliability, and reproducibility of our findings. This decision reflects the review’s primary objective to broadly map the existing literature on MSW management in Ghana and identify research gaps as well as limitations in available resources and time.

Eligibility criteria included peer-reviewed full-text articles and organisational documents (reports and institutional repositories) published in English between 2000 and 2024. This comprehensive approach ensured the inclusion of both scholarly research and practical, contemporary information on MSW management, accessible to the review team. The information sources used specific keywords to search across academic databases, such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, as well as institutional repositories and reports from organisations such as the World Bank, UNEP, UNDP, and Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These search engines were used because they are up-to-date, broad, and widely used for analysing interdisciplinary peer-reviewed studies. The date of the most recent search was executed on 10 February 2025.

The search was conducted using specific keywords tailored to capture the broad spectrum of the MSW management system. The keywords included “MSW management in Ghana” or sub-Saharan African countries”, “solid waste management in Ghana” or sub-Saharan African countries”, “MSW in Ghana”, “ISWM systems in Ghana or sub-Saharan African countries”, “solid waste treatment technologies options in Ghana or sub-Saharan African countries”, “solid waste management policies in Ghana”, “impacts and challenges of MSW management in Ghana or sub-Saharan African countries”,” Public perception about MSW management in Ghana”, “informal waste pickers in Ghana or sub-Saharan African countries”, “opportunities for MSW management in Ghana or sub-Saharan African countries” and “sustainable solid waste management systems”.

The selection process for including sources of evidence in this review followed a multi-stage approach, as illustrated in Figure 1 below (the PRISMA flow diagram). The inclusion criteria required studies to be geographically and thematically relevant (covering challenges and impacts, opportunities, policies, informal waste sector, or technology in MSW), peer-reviewed, written in English, and accessible as full-text documents. The exclusion criteria also comprised geographically or thematically irrelevant content, the non-authoritative grey literature, and duplicates.

The exclusion of the literature review involved three stages after the initial identification of 4599 articles through database searches. The first stage involves excluding records based on duplicates, abstracts, and titles. This initial screening resulted in 4599 exclusions (2801 duplicates and 1318 abstracts/titles), leaving 480 records for full screening. The second stage involved excluding records that were not in the English language, lacked access to the full context, and contained outdated information. This also excluded 315 (23 were not in the English language, 246 had no access to full texts, and 46 had outdated information). This left 165 articles for eligibility assessment. In the final eligibility assessment, 92 studies were excluded for not being sufficiently informative (e.g., including other waste types such as sewage or hazardous waste, and having minor relevance to this study).

After the screening and eligibility assessment, a total of 73 studies were ultimately included for in-depth analysis. A comprehensive analysis of 28 papers specific to Ghana, including academic studies, policy reviews, and institutional reports, was conducted. In addition, 18 papers with a global perspective on MSW management, based on practices and innovative strategies, contextualised the findings within international advancements. The remaining 27 studies related to MSW management systems in Sub-Saharan African countries were selected for analysis from a regional perspective based on treatment options and practices.

For data charting and data items, the review of this study entirely focused on gathering information related to the following:

• MSW management strategies;
• Existing challenges and impacts;
• Opportunities for improving MSW management;
• Trends in MSW generation and composition;
• Transportation and Collection methods;
• Treatment and Disposal technologies;
• Public awareness and attitudes;
• Role of informal waste pickers;
• Policy frameworks and their enforcement;
• Comparison of practices with other Sub-Saharan African countries.

To ensure consistency and accuracy, the data charting form was pilot tested by the authors on a subset of 8 included studies. This initial testing led to the iterative refinement of data categories and the clarification of definitions, ensuring that all relevant data could be consistently extracted.

Consistent with the methodological approach for scoping reviews, which aims to map the existing literature, a formal critical appraisal of the sources of evidence was not systematically conducted using standardised appraisal tools. However, during the data charting and synthesis process, an evaluative approach was undertaken for this study to interpret the findings. The research assessed the importance and contribution of each study to the general understanding of MSW management in Ghana, identifying gaps, highlighting consistent findings, and pinpointing weaknesses in the existing body of literature. This intuitive evaluation guided the synthesis of findings and the identification of significant trends and difficulties.

The methodology supported a robust analysis of MSW management practices in Ghana, situating findings within regional and global contexts. Qualitative analysis, such as thematic analysis and trends, was used to combine data from various sources, identifying common trends, strengths, and weaknesses in the current MSW management system in the country. Quantitative analysis was used to investigate MSW generation rates, MSW composition, and trends over time to provide an in-depth understanding of the components of the MSW management system in Ghana. Below in Figure 1 is the PRISMA flow diagram of the literature review [14].

3. Results

3.1. Characteristics of Evidence of Sources

This section outlines the key characteristics of all included sources of evidence. Tables S1–S3 in the Supplementary Material summarise the characteristics for which data were systematically charted. These characteristics were selected to provide a comprehensive overview relevant to the review aims on MSW management.

From the Supplementary Material, the research on Ghana (see Table S1) identified key issues such as the failures of public–private partnerships, the environmental and health impacts of poor waste handling, and the need for greater public participation and education on source separation. Studies from other SSA countries (see Table S2) also highlighted the following challenges: low collection rates, indiscriminate dumping, and the potential of informal waste sectors. Globally (see Table S3), it highlights the growing waste issue caused by urbanisation and underscores the importance of adopting a circular economy and implementing resource recovery. The reviewed literature collectively emphasised the need to move from traditional, linear disposal models to innovative and ISWM systems that prioritise recycling, resource recovery, and sustainable strategies to meet the challenges of rapid urban growth.

3.2. Overview of the Ghanaian MSW Management System

Ghana covers an estimated 238,535 km², with three main geographic regions: the coastal region (the smallest), the rainforest, and the northern savanna. It is a multinational state comprising diverse ethnic groups, languages, and religious groups [15], with a population of approximately 33 million and a growth rate of 2–2.7% [16]. The urbanisation rate has been increasing steadily, reflecting Ghana’s ongoing migration from rural to urban centres [17]. The Ghana Statistical Services (GSS) stated that the urban population in Ghana rose from 50.9% in 2010 to 56.7% in 2021, with 47.8% of this increase occurring in the Greater Accra and Ashanti Regions [15]. The percentage of people living in urban cities and towns in 2021 was about 57%, with about 43% living in rural areas [15]. The demographic and geographical details are significant because they influence the generation and management of MSW. The country has two distinct climatic seasons per year: the rainy season (May–October) and the dry season (November–April). Ghana is currently divided into sixteen administrative regions, which are further subdivided into 261 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) [18].

Over the years, MSW management has been a complex problem, especially in highly populated cities such as Accra (the country’s capital), Kumasi, and Takoradi. Until the 1990s, waste management was managed by the Municipal Waste Department [19]. The poor financial performance of the economy in the 1970s–1980s greatly affected waste management. There were no funds to acquire the necessary infrastructure for the sector [20]. This continued to worsen from 1976 to 1985 when it became a major crisis for the country. In 1985, with funds from the German government, Ghana established Municipal and Metropolitan Assemblies, the first being the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), to manage waste [19]. Although the various municipalities were responsible for solid waste management, they failed to meet their expectations as their capacity was limited to only 60% of the waste collection (tonnes of solid waste) generated daily in the 1990s [19]. Authorities at the decentralised local government level (Municipal and Metropolitan Assemblies) pointed out the fact that weak institutional capacities and insufficient resources (human and capital) allocated to them by the central government contributed to their lack of capacity to collect and dispose of waste properly [20].

The inability of waste management departments (municipalities) to handle the daily amount of waste opened the door for the private sector to participate in MSW management. However, private waste companies have also failed to manage MSW effectively due to human and financial resource limitations, as they too lack adequate access to loans and financial assistance due to a lack of collateral security for the purchase of new and innovative infrastructure for managing the ever-increasing MSW generated [21].

3.2.1. Sources of MSW in Ghana

MSW comprises waste from households, commercial areas and streets, institutions, industries, and agriculture [5,6,22] apart from waste from municipal sewage and treatment, construction, and demolition [23]. Most MSW generated in Ghana comes from households, with households generating about 55–80%, commercial or markets generating 10–30%, and the rest is from street waste, industries, institutions, and others [24].

3.2.2. Quantities of MSW Generated in Ghana

In Ghana, detailed, nationally available, and up-to-date statistical data on MSW composition are limited. A study by Miezah et al. [24] investigated MSW characterisation and quantification in Ghana. According to the study, the average national waste generation rate in 2015 was 0.51 kg per person per day, equivalent to 12,710 tonnes per day for its 27 million inhabitants [25]. Kumasi had the highest rate at 0.75 kg per person per day. Metropolitan areas had higher rates than municipalities and districts. Waste generation rates across Ghana ranged from 0.2 to 0.8 kg per person per day [24,26], similar to most cities in Sub-Saharan Africa [27,28]. Analysing the waste generation rate from a socioeconomic perspective, high socioeconomic class areas generated the highest amount of waste, followed by middle-class and then low-income areas [24]. However, in Tamale and Kumasi, the low-class areas generated more than the middle-class areas due to the high amount of inert waste [24].

3.2.3. Composition of MSW in Ghana

MSW in the urban cities and rural areas in Ghana is predominantly made up of organic materials and a high percentage of plastic waste, which is followed by inert materials (wood ash, sand, and charcoal) [25,29]. This can be linked to the general household consumption pattern in rural areas or villages, where fresh food items such as fruits, tubers, roots, and vegetables are commonly available. Nationally, organic waste accounts for approximately 61% of the total MSW generated, followed by plastics at 14% [30]. The rise in the volume of plastic waste is due to the continuous use of inorganic waste (plastics) in disposable consumer products (e.g., using it for packaging) [30,31]. Figure 2 below shows the composition of MSW in Ghana.

3.2.4. Collection and Transportation of MSW in Ghana

Two main types of MSW collection are practiced in Ghana: house-to-house and communal services. Municipal assemblies or privately owned solid waste companies undertake MSW collection and transport from the source of generation and collection points to disposal sites. The predominant form of MSW collection in urban cities in Ghana is house-to-house or door-to-door collection from homes [32]. However, these home collections are primarily limited to high- or middle-income people who can afford the services of privately owned waste companies [32]. The MSW is collected once or twice a week from bins typically holding 240 L, depending on the charges paid by these residents [33].

Communal collections are usually practiced in low-income and slum areas because residents cannot afford expensive individual house collection practices [34]. Residents must dispose of their MSW at municipal assembly-authorised communal collection points. If there are any charges, they are minimal compared to those of the door-to-door service, as the municipal assemblies operate these collection points. Collecting MSW from communal collection points is not performed frequently, and it can take over a week or months, depending on when the skip bins are full and, at times, overflow [33,35]. In rural settlements, the primary method of MSW collection is a communal collection point, typically an open dumpsite or a dug pit.

MSW is usually transported using compact trucks, skip trucks, and tricycles for collection from door to door, communal sites, industries, and institutions [36]. Tricycles and wheelbarrows are usually used for areas inaccessible to vehicles, such as slums and marketplaces. Informal waste pickers operate at a fee to help dispose of MSW [37]. MSW is either transported to a treatment facility or disposed of at designated sites.

3.2.5. Treatment and Disposal Facilities of MSW in Ghana

Ghana currently generates approximately 13,000 tonnes of solid waste daily, with most of MSW disposed of at landfills and only a small percentage sent to treatment or recycling facilities [24]. Open dumping sites remain Ghana’s primary MSW disposal method [38]. These are not engineered sites (with control measures), generally have no leachate control or scant application of cover materials, and are often open for access by animals and other disease vectors [39]. Additionally, these sites release gaseous emissions of methane, carbon dioxide, ammonia, and hydrogen sulphide. The burning of MSW at these sites causes air pollution and harms residents living in the vicinity [36].

MSW treatment facilities in Ghana are generally limited; however, a few exist within the Accra Region. These include the Accra Compost and Recycling Plant (ACARP), one of the most extensive MSW treatment facilities in the country; the Integrated Recycling and Compost Plant Limited (IRECOP); Jekora Ventures Limited; Stanley-Owusu and Company Limited; Zesta Environmental Solutions Limited; and City Waste Management Company Limited, among others. Most of these MSW treatment facilities undertake composting and the recovery of recyclable materials, such as plastics, cardboard, and metals. They receive and sort the MSW, then use the organic waste to produce organic compost for agricultural purposes and process plastics into pelletized plastics. Ghana still needs to formally adopt the practice of source separation of MSW [39].

3.3. Analysis of Findings

This section synthesises the relevant data extracted from the included sources, presenting key findings that address the review objectives on municipal solid waste (MSW) management. Findings are discussed thematically, covering the potential impacts of MSW, public attitudes, awareness, and incentives, as well as MSW treatment technologies and the roles of policies and the public/private sectors in Ghana. Comparisons with other Sub-Saharan African nations and global perspectives are also integrated.

3.3.1. Potential Impacts of MSW in Ghana

Since 2000, numerous studies have consistently highlighted the multifaceted challenges and consequences of Ghana’s inadequate MSW management systems. Early research by Boadi and Kuitunen [20,40] on Accra identified incomplete design, open dumping, poor infrastructure maintenance, and insufficient collection in slums as the root causes of unsustainable management and associated environmental and health issues. Fiasorgbor [41] also concluded that critical public health risks in urban slums were due to a lack of sanitation facilities and improper MSW disposal. Subsequent studies have underscored broader systemic deficiencies. In 2009, Baabereyir [42] highlighted the need for equitable collection services, citing a lack of political will, inadequate funding, and weak laws in Accra and Sekondi-Takoradi. Fei-Baffoe et al. [43] and Frempong [44] echoed the same issues in Tarkwa and Sekondi-Takoradi, emphasising insufficient funding, improper disposal, and inadequate collection practices. More recent work by Addaney and Oppong [45] and Sarfo-Mensah et al. [46] noted an imbalance towards mere waste collection, neglecting reduction, recycling, and reuse, coupled with insufficient budget allocation.

Anokye et al. [47] and Vinti et al. [48] critically evaluated the serious health risks associated with open burning, dumpsites, and contaminated waste, and they suggested comprehensive approaches that include technology options, community involvement, infrastructure development, and regulatory enforcement. Collectively, this body of research demonstrates that the identified issues in Ghana’s MSW management have persisted for over two decades.

3.3.2. Attitudes, Awareness, and Incentives Regarding MSW Management in Ghana

Studies reveal that the public’s lack of understanding and negative attitude play a major role in MSW management issues in Ghana. Research by Demanya [49] and Fei-Baffoe et al. [43] emphasised the importance of local expertise and citizen collaboration in efficient waste management, as well as the limitations of this approach. Twumasi [50] further indicated that, despite an awareness of strategies, actual public practice remains low in areas such as the Effutu municipality.

Furthermore, financial disincentives and a lack of trust hinder progress. Seth et al. [51] found that a significant portion of households in semi-rural areas were unwilling to pay for improved services, often due to existing informal disposal practices and a lack of proper receptacles. Addo-Fordwuor and Seah [52] observed that while many Kumasi households were willing to comply with MSW regulations, widespread dissatisfaction with local government efforts and a lack of incentives for waste reduction and segregation hindered participation.

However, studies on Tamale’s MSW management by Asare et al. [53,54] have shown that specific incentives, such as giving out free bins and rewarding recyclables, significantly increase source separation and recovery rates. These results highlighted the urgent need for specialised incentives, increased public trust, and strong enforcement to promote positive behavioural change and improve MSW management throughout Ghana, as also found by Sarfo-Mensah et al. [46] and Lissah et al. [55] regarding residents’ careless behaviour and lax enforcement.

3.3.3. MSW Treatment Technologies in Ghana

Recent studies in Ghana highlight crucial insights and opportunities for enhancing MSW management. Oteng-Ababio [56] and Abalo et al. [57] underscore that despite high population growth exacerbating waste issues, adopting appropriate treatment technologies and disposal practices can lead to effective MSW management, with MSW even serving as a valuable resource for renewable energy and income generation. Dugah [58] goes on to support integrated practices that emphasise peri-urban communities’ waste reduction, reuse, and recovery. In addition, the establishment of sanitary transfer stations and the imposition of fees for appropriate disposal are discussed.

Interestingly, Oduro-Appiah et al. [59] provided a successful example in Accra, where cooperation between researchers, formal service providers, and the informal waste sector resulted in significant cost savings by improving MSW collection coverage, waste capture, and recycling rates. Within two years (2016–2018), informal service providers increased by 71% from 350 to 600, creating new livelihoods and reducing poverty [59]. The informal service providers increased collection coverage from 75% to 90%, waste capture from 53% to 90%, and recycling rates from 5% to 18% between 2016 and 2018, saving the municipality USD 5,460,000.00 in annual operational costs [59]. This positive example of sustainable waste management modernisation serves as a key lesson for cities in similar economies.

Volsuuri et al. [60] emphasise the importance of optimising resource allocation and creating supportive legal and institutional environments to enhance private sector efficiency. According to Tahiru et al. [61], anaerobic digestion HAS the best Waste-to-Energy potential for Ghana in terms of treatment technology. They also point out that imprecise data and ambiguous policies hamper its full potential. In the Wa Municipality, there is a shortage of MSW collection services, and the improper placement of waste bins has led to extensive open dumping. Bowan [62] demonstrated the urgent need for an ISWM system. The research provided insightful information about public–private partnerships, technological options for solid waste management, and the regulatory changes required for Ghana’s solid waste management to be sustainable.

3.3.4. Policies and Role of Public and Private Sectors in MSW Management in Ghana

Studies on Ghana’s municipal solid waste (MSW) management highlight significant challenges related to institutional frameworks, policy implementation, and public–private partnerships (PPPs). Research by Daum et al. [63] on electronic waste (e-waste) processing in Accra, particularly around the Agbogbloshie site, revealed the severe environmental degradation and health risks to informal workers [64,65] and residents due to heavy metal and flame retardant contamination stemming from negligent recycling practices and insufficient regulatory oversight [66,67]. Despite these dangers, the informal sector remains crucial for livelihoods, necessitating inclusive and innovative approaches that involve recyclers and policymakers.

An analysis of national legislation, such as the Environmental Sanitation Policy of 1999, Act 464, and the Environmental Assessment Regulation L1 1650, which had legal support from the Environmental Protection Authority, Act 490, showed significant implementation difficulties resulting from a lack of definition, enforcement, coordination, and monitoring [68]. These issues obstruct the objectives of sustainable solid waste management. To rectify and avert future policy failures, policymakers reviewed and modified the policy in 2010 by Owusu-Sekyere et al. [69]. The policy reform improved national and international development priorities, as expressed primarily by the Millennium Development Goals, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), and the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy [69]. MSW must be disposed of by the guidelines established by the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) and other relevant regulatory agencies, as per the policy.

Moreover, the extensive privatisation of MSW services, often praised by external bodies, has not fully resolved Ghana’s waste crisis. Early studies such as Demanya [70], Awortwi [71], and Post and Obirih-Opareh [72] questioned whether the private sector truly outperformed a revitalised public sector with stricter adherence to laws, and subsequent research by Oduro-Kwarteng and Van Dijk [73], Ishawu et al. [74], Afful et al. [75], and Aning-Agyei [76] consistently points to issues such as low-cost recovery for private firms, weak enforcement of bylaws, and the local government’s failure to meet financial obligations to waste contractors.

However, even with the involvement of private companies in helping to manage solid waste in Ghana, the problem of improper solid waste management persists [55]. The private sector has yet to succeed in fully managing the MSW generated. This problem is due to the government’s inability, in this case, the MMDAs, to fulfil their financial obligations to the private waste sector by paying them on time and in full to collect and dispose of MSW in their respective areas [45,55]. To achieve sustainable solid waste management, a more balanced and well-regulated partnership between public and private actors is necessary, along with strong government oversight and a substantial financial commitment, despite the significant growth in private sector involvement.

3.3.5. Comparison of MSW Management in Ghana with Other Sub-Saharan African States

The diverse region of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), home to approximately 1.2 billion people, is experiencing a growing municipal solid waste (MSW) crisis due to urbanisation, population growth, and shifting consumer habits [16,77]. By 2030, the region’s yearly waste volume is expected to reach 269 million tonnes, of which more than 40% would be organic waste [31]. Despite this, MSW collection rates are low (around 44%), and the predominant disposal method remains open dumping or unsanitary landfills due to their perceived low cost, leading to severe public health risks, environmental degradation, and economic burdens [2]. Countries such as Angola, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Sierra Leone [78,79,80] practice this disposal, with Uganda and South Africa being countries with engineered landfills [81].

Although data on MSW management in SSA is limited, a few countries, such as Ghana, South Africa, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Nigeria, have published some information on MSW management [82,83,84,85]. However, there is growing adoption of sustainable treatment options like composting (popular in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Uganda) [79,80], anaerobic digestion for biogas (in Ethiopia, Mali, and Senegal) [86,87], and nascent Waste-to-Energy (WTE) projects (Uganda, South Africa, Zambia) [83,85], though technical skill and budget constraints hinder widespread implementation. Informal MSW management strategies play a crucial role throughout SSA, particularly in countries such as Liberia, Senegal, and Nigeria [86,88,89]. The informal waste sector plays an important role in MSW collection and recycling, but it requires formal integration to ensure safer working conditions and sustainable practices. Regarding policy frameworks, SSA nations have different approaches to solid waste management. Some of the SSA nations have developed national strategies or approaches to address solid waste management issues, while others require comprehensive policies or enforcement mechanisms [87]. Overall, the comparison of MSW treatment technologies across SSA nations (see

Table 1. The MSW technology options used in some Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries.

Country	Recovery and Recycling	Treatment Option	Disposal	Reference
Angola	Informal recycling	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[90,91]
Ethiopia	Informal recycling	Small-scale composting Biogas project for energy production	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[83]
Botswana	Limited recovery and recycling	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping Open burning	[4]
Nigeria	Informal recycling	Composting Waste-to-Energy	Landfill (semi-engineered) Open burning Open dumping	[82,86]
Liberia	Informal recycling	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[4,89,92]
Sierra Leone	Informal recycling	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping Open burning	[87]
Mali	Informal recycling	Small-scale animal biogas plants Gasification project	Landfill (not engineered) Open burning Open dumping	[93]
Uganda	Informal recycling	Composting Small-scale Gasification Incineration	Landfill (engineered) Open dumping	[85]
Senegal	Informal recycling	Biogas plant Incineration	Landfill (not engineered) Open burning Open dumping	[87]
Kenya	Informal recycling	Small-scale composting	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping Open burning	[79,81,84]
Zimbabwe	Informal recycling	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[80,94,95]
Zambia	N/A	Incineration Biogas project	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[87]
South Africa	Recycling	Incineration	Landfill (engineered) Open dumping	[96,97]
Rwanda	Small-scale recycling	Small-scale composting Household biogas plants Combustion with no emission controls	Landfill (not engineered)	[98,99]
Tanzania	N/A	Household bio-digesters Biogas plants	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[87,100,101]
Mozambique	Recycling	Biogas plant	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[102,103]
Sudan	N/A	N/A	Landfills (not engineered) Open dumping Open burning	[87]
Mauritania	Recycling	Incineration for medical waste	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[104]
Lesotho	Small-scale recycling	Small-scale composting	Open dumping Households own refuse dumps	[105]
Togo	Informal recycling	Small-scale composting	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[106]
Malawi	Small-scale recycling	Small-scale animal manure biogas plant	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping	[102,103]
Guinea Bissau	Informal recycling	N/A	Open dumping	[87,107]
Cape Verde	N/A	N/A	Open dumping	[108]
Gambia	N/A	N/A	Landfill (not engineered) Open dumping Open burning	[109]
Niger	Small-scale recycling	N/A	Landfills (not engineered) Open dumping	[110]

) emphasises the significance of context-specific approaches matched to local needs, resources, and goals.

3.4. Synthesis of Key Findings

Ghana’s MSW management system was extensively reviewed, and the results showed many ongoing, complex issues, including poor infrastructure, low collection rates, widespread open dumping, and fundamental limitations in financing, policy implementation, and public involvement. These problems greatly exacerbate environmental deterioration and hazards to human health.

Despite these challenges, the analysis identified emerging opportunities and applicable technological options, such as the potential for Waste-to-Energy technologies (like anaerobic digestion) and the demonstrated effectiveness of integrating the informal waste sector to achieve higher rates of recycling, waste capture, and collection.

The comparison with other Sub-Saharan African countries revealed common issues such as low collection rates and the use of informal or unsanitary disposal techniques. However, it also demonstrates how the region has evolved toward a range of sustainable treatment solutions, including biogas and composting, as well as various policy approaches.

All of these results underscore the urgent need for Ghana to adopt a comprehensive Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) framework. To effectively address issues and enhance environmental sustainability and public health, the framework must utilise appropriate technology, formalise the contributions of the informal sector, strengthen policy enforcement, secure sustainable funding, and increase public engagement.

4. Discussion

4.1. Constraints for MSW Management in Ghana

Effective municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Ghana is severely hampered by a complex interplay of socioeconomic, environmental, institutional, and infrastructural constraints.

1.

Population Growth and Urbanisation

High population growth and urbanisation resulting in increased waste generation, strained infrastructure, and limited suitable land for disposal, particularly in rapidly expanding urban slums, are mounting tremendous pressure on the current MSW management system in Ghana [8]. This exacerbates issues of insufficient service coverage and illegal dumping. Currently, municipalities in Ghana need help to manage the increasing demand for MSW collection, treatment, and disposal [55]. Managing these many MSW streams necessitates specialised infrastructure, technology, and management strategies.

2.

Inadequate Infrastructure and Equipment

In Ghana, inadequate infrastructure and equipment are significant barriers. The lack of collection vehicles, minimal formal collection services in many urban and rural areas, limited technology options, and poorly maintained, unlined disposal sites [46] contribute to widespread littering, environmental degradation, and the spread of diseases, costing the country huge financial losses in managing these issues.

3.

Financial Limitations

Financial constraints resulting from inadequate government funding, expensive infrastructure and equipment, high operational costs, high transportation, and a lack of efficient cost-recovery methods constitute another significant obstacle [111,112]. Ghana frequently relies on external funding sources, including foreign donors, aid agencies, and development banks, to support its waste management projects. The goal of sustainable development is made much more challenging to achieve by this reliance on outside funding. Furthermore, depending on outside funding can be hazardous and dependent on the political and economic conditions of the nation.

4.

Weak Policies and Regulatory Frameworks

Weak laws and regulations, which are caused by lax enforcement and a lack of stakeholder input in policy creation, hinder formalisation initiatives and promote improper waste operations that go unchecked, leading to open burning and illegal disposal within cities in Ghana. The informal waste sector actors, waste pickers, and small-scale recyclers, due to a lack of formal recognition and integration into the formal solid waste management system, often operate outside formal regulatory frameworks, exacerbating their integration, regulation, and oversight challenges [113].

5.

Exclusion of Informal Waste Sector from Formal Waste Management System

The informal waste sector plays a crucial role in the collection and recycling of MSW [64]; its operation outside formal regulations poses health risks to workers, leads to inefficient resource recovery, and can cause conflict with formal services for access to MSW streams and market opportunities, complicated by resistance to integration [113]. The resistance to formalisation is due to fears of loss of livelihood, economic insecurity, or displacement [113]. This reluctance challenges the development of sustainable solid waste management methods and inclusive approaches that recognise the contributions of informal waste workers. Therefore, there is a need to incorporate the informal waste sector into the formal waste management system to promote resource recovery and develop sustainable solid waste strategies.

6.

Low Public Awareness and Participation

A significant barrier to effective MSW management in Ghana is the low public awareness and participation in the generation, segregation, and disposal of waste management techniques. Although campaigns and education are ongoing in Ghana about MSW management, many people are still unaware of improper waste disposal’s environmental and health consequences and the advantages of MSW recycling and reduction programmes [50]. These behaviours and perceptions hinder effective MSW management in Ghana.

To achieve sustainable MSW management, all stakeholders (government agencies, civil society organisations, private sectors, public, and international partners) must collaborate to address these constraints, as well as make strategic investments and implement effective regulatory changes.

4.2. Technology Options for Enhancing MSW Management in Ghana

Ghana can enhance its municipal solid waste (MSW) management through several promising technology options that would increase efficiency and sustainability. The fundamental approaches include the following.

• Source Separation and Reduction in MSW

MSW source separation and reduction involve sorting waste at the point of generation into organic, recyclable, and non-recyclable materials. This approach promotes reuse, recovery, and minimal packaging to reduce landfill volumes significantly [114]. However, Ghana currently does not practice source segregation; MSW is usually mixed, making it unattractive for investors to invest in MSW management in Ghana. Encouraging people and institutions (such as schools, offices, and homes) to practice source separation and purchase products with minimal packaging, reuse recyclable materials, and repurpose objects rather than discarding them can dramatically reduce the overall MSW generated by diverting valuable items from landfills. This will support conserving natural resources and minimise environmental risks [54].

2.

Engineered Landfills

For the disposal of MSW, engineered landfills are essential. This is because engineered landfills incorporate various features and technologies to reduce their environmental impact, including leachate collection systems, landfill liners, and gas capture systems [85]. Engineered landfills reduce the possibility of groundwater pollution and minimise greenhouse emissions (methane and carbon dioxide) from the landfill’s decomposition process [115,116,117]. Currently, an engineered landfill (Adipa landfill) was completed in 2023 at Nsawam in the Eastern Region (80 km round trip from Accra), which is about 0.48 km² in size; however, it is not yet operational. This Adipa landfill is to accommodate MSW generated in the Greater Accra Region and its environs. Also, engineered landfills are a relatively low-cost and efficient way to dispose of waste with a long-life span of about 20–30 years, allowing developing countries like Ghana to meet MSW management requirements while minimising environmental impact. However, the long-term effectiveness of designed landfills depends on proper site selection, construction practices, and monitoring systems such as landfill stability, gas emissions, and leachate management to ensure that constructed landfill systems remain effective in managing MSW.

3.

Composting

Composting is a sustainable and viable method for managing MSW, especially in countries like Ghana, where organic waste is a significant part of the MSW stream (approximately 61%) generated [24,118], and composting presents a practical and scalable solution to address waste management challenges and support sustainable development goals. This diverts MSW from overburdened disposal sites (prolonging the life span), reduces methane emissions, and produces nutrient-rich soil improvers [119,120,121]. Currently, Ghana has a few composting plants where MSW is managed; however, a small fraction of the MSW generated is sent to these facilities, with the majority still being sent to dumpsites and landfills [57]. Efficient MSW segregation, public awareness campaigns, and infrastructure development are important for successful composting.

4.

Material Recovery Facilities

Material Recovery Facilities (MRFs) are essential facilities for effectively sorting using both manual and automated technologies (e.g., magnets and optical sorters) and recovering recyclables from mixed waste streams, including metals, paper, glass, and plastics [122,123]. Apart from preparing materials for reuse, MRFs also act as educational centres for recycling programmes, formalising the unorganised recycling industry, generating income and jobs, and lowering the need for landfills. In Ghana, a significant volume (15-20%) of MSW recyclable materials is generated daily [24]. Also, in Ghana, where informal waste picking is prevalent, and source segregation of waste is minimal, MRFs play an important role in efficiently separating and recovering valuable items from mixed waste streams. This serves as a means to divert MSW, especially recyclable materials, from the traditional approach of landfilling (unsanitary), attract investment, foster public–private partnerships, and support local manufacturing, thus promoting a circular economy. Also, this serves as a livelihood for the informal waste pickers. Thus, the revenue generated from the sale of recyclable materials will help boost the economy.

5.

Waste-to-Energy (WTE)

WTE technologies offer the opportunity for volume reduction in MSW volume from waste streams, particularly where good source segregation and/or MRF sorting are not readily available. WTE plants can also process residual waste (e.g., from an MRF) to generate energy. The method used for transforming MSW into waste includes incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion. The diverse WTE opportunities are discussed below.

• Biogas Production

Biogas facilities are a viable technology solution for managing MSW in developing nations like Ghana, which have high generation rates of organic waste. Biogas facilities provide a long-term solution for diverting MSW (organic waste) from landfills and transforming it into valuable energy [124,125]. The biogas facilities use anaerobic digestion through the capturing of methane emissions to convert organic waste into biogas for energy production [125]. This process offers several advantages for energy production, environmental sustainability, and the management of MSW [125,126].

The nutrient-rich digestate produced in biogas systems can be used as an organic fertiliser (manure) to increase soil fertility and crop yields and encourage sustainable agricultural practices [125,126].

• Incineration with energy recovery

Incineration technology involves burning waste materials at high temperatures to generate energy [127]. It addresses the difficulty of managing MSW volume by reducing the total volume of MSW transferred to landfills through combustion [128]. During the combustion process, the heat energy generated is used to produce electricity [129]. Moreover, the heat produced from this technology can be utilised in industrial processes, thereby enhancing incineration technology’s capacity for energy recovery.

Ghana currently experiences challenges with its electricity supply, characterised by frequent power outages known as “load shedding”. ‘Renewable’ energy from WTE processes could help supplement other grid electricity sources to meet Ghana’s power demand, improve livelihoods, and advance socioeconomic development. However, the high establishment and operation costs, technological complexity, and the requirement for specialised infrastructure and knowledge associated with incineration can make it difficult for Ghana to adopt this technology option.

4.3. Integrating MSW Management in Public Institutions for Smart Cities in Ghana

An important strategy to improve the management of MSW in Ghana’s rapidly developing cities and address the increasing generation of MSW is to strategically integrate waste management practices into public institutions, such as schools, hospitals, offices, and universities. Beyond traditional MSW management, this integration must take advantage of dynamic innovation paths to hasten the development and broad adoption of intelligent solutions. These entities are ideal for piloting intelligent waste solutions through rigorous source segregation across all departments, ensuring the purity of materials for recycling and composting.

A crucial component is the requirement for technology transfer, which ensures that cutting-edge research and industry best practices are applied from theoretical frameworks to real-world applications. The Triple Helix concept must, therefore, receive considerable attention to promote complementary collaboration among the public sector, private sector, and academic institutions [130]. While industry can scale solutions and offer technological expertise, academia can lead research and pilot waste initiatives. The government then creates regulatory frameworks and regulations that are helpful in managing MSW [89]. These efforts, when combined with public awareness and behaviour change programmes, turn public institutions into proactive partners in sustainable development and provide reproducible models for a cleaner, smarter Ghana.

With the evolution of smart waste bins and sensors, modern waste management is transforming. These Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled bins send real-time data to a central system via sensors that track the maximum fill levels [131,132]. This intelligence enables waste management operators to optimise collection routes by dispatching trucks only to bins that are full or nearing capacity, thereby reducing unnecessary trips [132,133]. This improves urban cleanliness and operational efficiency by resulting in significant fuel savings, reduced vehicle wear and tear, lower labour and transportation costs, a reduction in GHG emissions, and an enhanced capacity to respond promptly and prevent overflowing bins. These smart bins can be utilised in offices, schools, hospitals, and industries in Ghana to reduce the overflow of MSW. This makes it possible for waste collection techniques to be more economical and environmentally friendly.

Through a smooth transition from conceptual designs to large-scale, real-world implementation, highlighting these innovation pathways will increase the practical relevance of integrating advanced waste management solutions and support an urban waste management ecosystem in Ghana that is genuinely responsive and sustainable. However, several challenges impede implementation in Ghana. These include the high cost of equipment and operation, low technical expertise, institutional capacity, and low public awareness about smart waste bins. This will require a well-planned strategy, high financial investment, focused infrastructure construction, and extensive public education campaigns.

4.4. Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) System

Finding the best Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system is crucial for Ghana’s efficient MSW management. Ghana can benefit greatly from an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system, which essentially lessens the effects of inappropriate MSW management techniques. It improves human health and environmental benefits by reducing open burning, illegal dumping, controlling greenhouse gas emissions, and leachate [55], as well as other impacts of ineffective practices. Economically, it minimises management costs through the use of optimisation models, identifying areas for efficient expenditure and expansion [134]. Socially, ISWM helps evaluate system issues, enabling both private and public waste sectors to analyse current strengths and weaknesses. The ISWM system involves every stage in the MSW management system, from the source of generation through storage, collection, transportation, treatment, or processing to its final disposal.

System modelling is vital for Ghana’s Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) because it enables strategic planning, cost efficiency, and environmental sustainability while ensuring adaptability for future development and population growth [135]. These models integrate parameters such as mass balance, capacity limits, and site availability to maximise resource recovery with minimal resource consumption [135,136]. By offering a computer-based approach and leveraging real-time data from technologies [127], such tools empower decision-makers to explore various scenarios, analyse trade-offs, and identify cost-effective and efficient technology options for waste collection, treatment, and disposal [129,137]. Therefore, they move Ghana toward a robust and sustainable waste management system tailored to its specific needs.

Furthermore, although Ghana’s municipal solid waste management sector faces challenges, there are substantial opportunities for sustainable development through an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) approach. The significant opportunities include resource recovery and the circular economy, leveraging the high organic content for composting and the presence of recyclables (such as plastics, paper, and metals) for new industries, aligning with the concept of materials in transition. Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies, including pyrolysis, incineration, gasification, and biogas generation, may also convert waste into essential energy sources, improving national energy security and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

In addition to the technological solutions mentioned above, integration can formalise the informal waste sector, boost resource recovery, and promote social inclusion [129,137], while creating long-term jobs and improving living conditions. Upcycling MSW also presents an innovative economic avenue, transforming discarded materials into higher-value products, thereby creating jobs, diversifying local economies, promoting circular economy concepts, reducing reliance on virgin materials, and strengthening community resilience to economic shocks [138,139]. Some of the upcycled MSW products include clothes, building materials, home decorations, and compost from organic waste.

Technological advancement and optimisation can significantly increase efficiency and environmental compliance through creative waste management, modelling, and contemporary infrastructure. Lastly, to turn Ghana’s MSW crisis into a pathway for economic growth, job creation, and improved public and environmental health, policy and governance improvements, such as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) schemes, encouraging public–private partnerships (PPPs) and bolstering community engagement, are crucial.

4.5. Synthesis of Discussions

This review of the literature on MSW management in Ghana, contextualised by comparisons with other Sub-Saharan African countries, reveals a complex and challenging landscape dominated by socioeconomic, environmental, institutional, and infrastructural constraints. This review highlights persistent issues, including the burden that urbanisation and growing populations are placing on the current infrastructure, significant financial constraints exacerbated by the need for external funding, inadequate policy implementation, and a low level of public knowledge and participation. Despite its crucial role in collection and recycling, the informal waste sector is often overlooked, which results in inefficiencies and health hazards.

The corpus of information, which includes numerous scholarly research studies and policy evaluations spanning over two decades, identifies several technological possibilities and strategic approaches for improvement. The necessity for source separation is one of these, as is the potential of engineered landfills and the feasibility of various Waste-to-Energy (WtE) technologies for resource recovery and energy production. To further expedite the transition to smart cities, the findings further highlight the significance of utilising innovative technologies to integrate MSW management within public institutions and encourage multi-stakeholder collaborations (Triple Helix model).

This review carefully analyses Ghana’s MSW system by outlining these difficulties, investigating technological possibilities, and examining the policies and responsibilities of the public and private sectors, all of which directly address this review’s goals. In addition, the comparative analysis with other Sub-Saharan African countries highlights the common difficulties of low collection rates and reliance on unsanitary disposal. When taken as a whole, this information demonstrates the urgent need to adopt a comprehensive ISWM system, highlighting its numerous advantages for public health, environmental sustainability, and economic growth through the formalisation of the informal sector, technological advancements, and the implementation of a circular economy.

The results of this review offer important insights into policy gaps, the need for more robust regulatory enforcement, and strategic investments in technology and infrastructure, making them highly pertinent to Ghanaian policymakers and government organisations (such as the MMDAs and EPA). It also highlights the significance of creating inclusive rules for the informal waste sector and meeting financial commitments to private waste contractors or companies. In addition, for academics and researchers, this study outlines the state of the art and identifies key research gaps regarding the long-term efficacy of technologies in regional contexts, as well as socioeconomic factors that affect public engagement, thereby directing future investigations. International Development Partners can also use these findings to guide targeted funding and support for technology transfer, capacity building, and Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) projects in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa.

5. Conclusions

Ghana is experiencing growing MSW management challenges. These problems are characterised by a significant reliance on unsustainable methods, such as open dumping and unsanitary landfills [57,140], which have a significant impact on the environment and public human health [33,57]. Current solid waste initiatives are unable to keep pace with the growing volume of MSW generated daily, primarily due to the rapid rate of urbanisation and changes in consumption patterns, which are attributed to a lack of infrastructure, limited funding, lax enforcement of regulations, and inadequate public awareness. Even existing initiatives, such as composting plants and engineered landfills, are underutilised or face significant implementation hurdles, which are compounded by the often overlooked yet critical informal waste sector.

The findings from this review paper indicate a significant need to shift from conventional MSW management methods to an Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system, that is, an ISWM system that prioritises reduction, reuse, and recycling. This paper’s methodology offers a crucial innovation pathway by systematically integrating diverse technological options (e.g., source separation, modern collection, engineered landfills, composting, Material Recovery Facilities, smart waste bins, and Waste-to-Energy technologies such as biogas production and incineration) with socioeconomic and environmental considerations. The ISWM method emphasises robust public awareness and engagement, strengthened laws and regulations, strategic investments, and the inclusion of the informal waste sector. An optimised ISWM framework can ensure optimal costs and efficient resource allocation by integrating real-time data, which offers valuable insights to stakeholders by applying system modelling techniques that consider variables like capacity restrictions and mass balance.

It is crucial to acknowledge some of the inherent limitations of the scoping review process. The extent of certain quantitative studies that could have been carried out may have been limited by restrictions on data and references. Furthermore, the capacity to capture the most recent developments or immediate changes in waste generation patterns, management techniques, and policy efficacy within Ghana may have been constrained by the available literature at the time of the review.

However, this review serves as more than just a compilation of current knowledge. It is a foundational blueprint for a fundamental paradigm shift towards a truly Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) system in Ghana, laying the groundwork for future implementable research by offering this thorough synthesis, identifying strategic opportunities, and suggesting advanced optimisation modelling as a forward-looking solution. Building on the comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s national MSW challenges and opportunities, waste management optimisation modelling and stakeholder interviews will be conducted in the future to enhance the sustainable waste management implementation.