Technological Innovation in Engineering Education: A Psychopedagogical Approach for Sustainable Development

Abstract

Digital transformation has profoundly impacted engineering education, demanding new pedagogical approaches that ensure effective and sustainable learning. Educational psychology plays a fundamental role in strategically integrating educational technologies, fostering more inclusive, interactive, and efficient learning environments. This article explores the intersection of technological innovation, engineering education, and educational psychology, analyzing how digital tools such as Artificial Intelligence, virtual reality, gamification, and remote laboratories can optimize the teaching–learning process. It also examines the psychopedagogical impact of these technologies, addressing challenges like cognitive load, student motivation, digital accessibility, and emotional well-being. Finally, the article presents guidelines for sustainable implementation aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), promoting efficient, equitable, and student-centered education. As a theoretical and exploratory study, it also points to directions for future empirical investigations and practical applications. The insights provided offer strategic guidance for academic managers and educational policymakers seeking to implement sustainable, inclusive, and pedagogically effective digital innovation in engineering education.

1. Introduction

Technological innovation has been a transformative force in engineering education, especially with the rise of Industry 4.0, which introduced new technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), big data, and the Internet of Things (IoT). These advancements require higher education to adapt in order to prepare students for the challenges and opportunities in a highly digital and dynamic environment [1]. In recent decades, engineering education has incorporated these technologies to enhance the effectiveness of traditional methodologies, which often focused on theoretical classes and limited practical sessions [2], and to develop competencies that enable addressing the issues of the current century and fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals [3].

In particular, digital tools such as virtual simulations, online learning platforms, and remote laboratories have been utilized to facilitate learning and create more interactive and accessible environments, where students can experience real engineering situations safely and in a personalized manner [4]. This transformation improves the understanding of complex concepts and allows for more flexible and adaptive learning, adjusting to the needs of each student, thus favoring the achievement of individual objectives.

Technological innovation in engineering education is not merely a technical matter but also a psychological and pedagogical one.

Psychopedagogy not only supports the integration of technology in education but also plays a crucial role in ensuring that such innovation is sustainable and inclusive over time. By promoting personalized learning, emotional regulation, and metacognitive strategies, psychopedagogical approaches help reduce dropout rates and enhance student engagement, particularly in digital environments [5]. These strategies ensure that technological adoption is not superficial or short-lived but rather embedded in pedagogical practices that adapt to diverse cognitive, social, and emotional needs.

Furthermore, psychopedagogical models advocate for the thoughtful use of resources and tools that foster autonomy, collaboration, and digital well-being, aligning with the sustainability principles outlined in SDG 4 (Quality education) and SDG 9 (Industry, innovation, and infrastructure) [6]. For instance, immediate feedback systems, learning analytics, and adaptive digital environments contribute to more efficient learning processes and reduce the need for intensive physical infrastructure, thus minimizing the environmental impact [7]. In this sense, psychopedagogy is not merely a complementary element in digital transformation, it is a key enabler of educational innovation that is both equitable and environmentally responsible.

The introduction of new technologies must be accompanied by an understanding of the cognitive and emotional processes involved in learning [8,9] because they impact the generation of educational changes at both individual and institutional levels [10] and affect the teaching and learning process, generating debates about their impact on students’ experience, as well as their perceptions of effectiveness, challenges, and opportunities [11].

Psychopedagogy helps to understand how students interact with technology and how learning can be optimized through approaches that promote autonomy and inclusion. Furthermore, it can contribute to the adaptation of educational technologies to different learning profiles to ensure that all students can benefit from the use of technologies, regardless of their cognitive or emotional characteristics [5,12]. This includes practices such as immediate feedback, personalized learning, and the creation of a digital environment that fosters collaboration and the resolution of complex problems.

The use of technologies in engineering education is linked to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular SDG 4: Quality education and SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure [13], because the university is responsible for supporting and incorporating these principles throughout the entire educational curriculum [7]. Consequently, when engineering education is combined with innovative technologies, it can offer more accessible, inclusive, and high-quality education that meets the needs of a constantly changing society, contributing to educational sustainability by providing new forms of teaching that do not rely on large physical infrastructures and therefore reduce the environmental impact [14]. For this reason, the incorporation of sustainable technologies in engineering education not only prepares students for future environmental challenges but also promotes educational practices that respect the principles of equity and accessibility [15]. Despite the growing volume of studies on educational technologies and engineering education, there is still a lack of integrated approaches that simultaneously consider psychopedagogical aspects—such as cognitive load, motivation, and emotional well-being—and commitments to educational sustainability, in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This paper seeks to fill that gap by offering a transdisciplinary perspective that critically and systematically links these three domains. The originality of this article lies in the proposition of a conceptual framework that, although not yet empirically validated, provides a foundation for future investigations and pedagogical practices that are more inclusive, effective, and sustainable in engineering education.

Accordingly, this study is guided by the following research questions:

(1)

How can psychopedagogical principles inform the effective integration of digital technologies in engineering education?

(2)

In what ways can the adoption of educational technologies contribute to the sustainability goals, particularly in terms of inclusion, equity, and environmental impact?

(3)

What conceptual framework can be proposed to guide future empirical studies at the intersection of technological innovation, psychopedagogy, and sustainable engineering education?

This study assumes a theoretical and exploratory nature, aiming to integrate perspectives from psychopedagogy and digital technologies applied to engineering education, within a critical and conceptual approach. The analysis is based on the recent scientific literature and intends to identify interrelations and trends that contribute to future empirical research.

2. Technology and Psychopedagogy in Engineering Education

Digital transformation has significantly impacted higher education, especially in the field of engineering, where new technologies are redefining the way knowledge is transmitted and assimilated. In this scenario, understanding how pedagogical methodologies have evolved, which psychopedagogical principles support the use of technology in learning, and what the benefits and challenges of this change are becomes essential for more effective education aligned with contemporary demands.

2.1. Evolution of Engineering Teaching Methodologies in the Digital Age

Engineering education has traditionally emphasized expository methodologies and approaches based on solving mathematical and physical problems [4]. However, with technological advancements and the demand for sustainable development competencies such as communication, problem-solving, and professional knowledge, new teaching models have emerged that promote active and personalized learning [16].

In recent years, methodologies such as project-based learning [17], flipped classroom [18,19], and simulation-based learning [20,21] have been adopted to provide more interactive teaching. The integration of virtual learning environments and tools like virtual and augmented reality [22,23] allows students to experience complex concepts practically, bridging the gap between theory and real-world application. Additionally, digital platforms such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) and adaptive learning with AI make knowledge more accessible and teaching more flexible [11,24].

While digital technologies have undoubtedly enhanced engineering education—through increased interactivity, personalization, and remote access—it is equally important to acknowledge their potential adverse effects. Critical reflections, such as those by Soulikias et al. (2021) [25], underscore possible drawbacks of excessive digitalization, including the diminishing of analog and manual skills, a growing dependence on software tools, and the erosion of project-based, intuitive reasoning. These concerns highlight the importance of integrating digital technologies in a balanced and reflective manner, underpinned by structured psychopedagogical approaches that preserve core engineering competencies.

2.2. Psychopedagogical Principles Applied to Educational Technology

The introduction of technology in engineering teaching must be guided by solid psychopedagogical principles. This guarantees meaningful and inclusive learning, and one of the fundamental concepts is active learning, which can transform technical content into more engaging learning experiences [26], as well as strengthen critical thinking and improve academic performance [27]. This underlines the need to align the introduction of educational technologies with solid psychopedagogical foundations, ensuring that learning in engineering is meaningful and inclusive.

Another essential principle is project-based learning, which encourages students to solve real problems collaboratively, improving their critical skills [28], student autonomy, the development of project management skills, collaborative skills, and enhances communicative competence [29].

Educational technologies, such as simulations and remote laboratories, have been widely studied, standing out for their potential to provide practical and immersive experiences in higher education [30], with an emphasis on the flexibility they offer in terms of time, place, and learning pace [31].

An additional fundamental aspect is pedagogical differentiation, which focuses on adapting teaching to the individual needs of students, being especially relevant in inclusive education [32], offering more effective and accessible teaching, aligned with the goal of optimizing the learning experience.

The advancement of educational technologies in engineering teaching requires investment in digital infrastructure and psychopedagogical understanding to ensure that these innovations are used effectively [33]. The combination of active methodologies, personalized learning, and emerging technologies can positively transform higher education, making it more accessible, inclusive, and sustainable, as well as optimizing the learning experience because it improves student motivation, reduces excessive cognitive load, and increases their autonomy in the educational process [34].

Therefore, it is essential to deepen the exploration of specific technological strategies that can be applied to promote sustainable learning, in line with the principles of the SDGs. The implementation of these strategies not only improves the effectiveness of teaching but also contributes to building a more conscious and responsible educational future.

2.3. Benefits and Challenges of the Digitalization of Higher Education in Engineering

The digitalization of higher education has significantly transformed teaching and learning processes, especially in areas such as engineering, where practice and experimentation play a key role [35]. However, this transition presents challenges that must be considered to ensure effective and inclusive implementation [36]. Modeling and simulation software, such as MATLAB (programming and numeric computing environment), AutoCAD (autodesk for computer-aided design), SolidWorks (parametric 3D computer-aided design and computer-aided engineering tool), and Simulink (extension of MATLAB for modelling and simulation of dynamic systems using block diagrams), allow students to explore complex concepts without relying solely on physical infrastructure, which reduces costs and increases accessibility [37]. Additionally, online platforms such as MOOCs and learning management systems offer greater flexibility, enabling students to learn at their own pace and according to their individual needs [38].

Digital connectivity also plays an essential role in academic and professional collaboration, as it facilitates interactions between students, teachers, and institutions worldwide. Collaborative projects, hackathons, and international competitions become more accessible, providing enriching experiences that prepare future engineers for a globalized labor market [39]. At the same time, the application of AI and big data analytics in teaching allows personalized learning, as well as contributing to the monitoring of academic progress and the continuous improvement in pedagogical methods [40]. Therefore, this transition demands the development of new skills both from teachers, who need to master digital tools and active methodologies, and from students, who must acquire greater autonomy and discipline to face online learning [36], since the strong practical component of engineering cannot be completely replaced by virtual environments without compromising the development of essential skills.

However, the process of digitalizing engineering teaching requires robust technological infrastructure, and not all institutions have the necessary resources to guarantee high-quality equipment, stable internet connection, and access to specialized software for all students [33,41]. This situation can exacerbate inequalities among students, compromising equity in education [14]. To address this challenge, institutional policies that promote digital inclusion in a broader and more structured manner are necessary, going beyond mere provision of infrastructure and teacher training. Such policies should include financial support measures, the development of digital competences in students, and strategies to ensure continuous and equitable access to digital educational resources—especially in regions with lower connectivity or greater socio-economic vulnerability. As critical studies point out, technology, if poorly implemented, can reinforce existing exclusions rather than reduce them [42]. Furthermore, evidence from meta-analyses indicates that the positive impact of technologies is closely linked to favorable institutional contexts and policies that align pedagogical innovation with digital equity [43].

Despite these challenges, the success of digitalization will depend on the implementation of balanced strategies that combine technology, pedagogical innovation, and digital inclusion. Only with a structured and sustainable approach will it be possible to guarantee that all students can enjoy the benefits of this new educational model [44].

Even though engineering education is becoming increasingly digitalized and the literature on educational technologies is expanding, a significant gap persists in the structured integration of psychopedagogical principles into these innovation processes. Many technological implementations remain focused primarily on operational efficiency, often overlooking fundamental aspects such as students’ emotional well-being, cognitive load, and intrinsic motivation [22,33]. This study proposes a theoretical and exploratory approach that articulates the intersection between technological innovation, psychopedagogy, and sustainability—an area still underexplored in the specialized literature. By identifying these interrelations, the study aims to contribute a solid conceptual foundation to guide future empirical investigations and the implementation of more integrated, inclusive, and sustainable pedagogical practices in engineering education.

Notwithstanding the numerous benefits reported, it is important to acknowledge that the effectiveness of educational technologies is not unanimous in the literature. Critical studies highlight that the adoption of digital technologies may, in some contexts, fail to improve learning outcomes or even exacerbate inequalities [42]. Furthermore, evidence indicates that the positive impact of technologies heavily depends on the pedagogical context, available infrastructure, and teacher preparedness [45]. A recent second-order meta-analysis by Sailer et al. (2024) [43] synthesizing 16 meta-analyses in higher education reported that when digital tools merely substitute traditional instruction, there are no substantial gains in cognitive outcomes, whereas moderate to large effects emerged when they enhanced or redefined learning activities, depending on how the technology was implemented. These findings emphasize that technology’s effectiveness is context-sensitive, bolstering the argument for more research on inclusion, sustainability, and psychopedagogical integration.

3. Technological Strategies for Sustainable Learning

The integration of technologies in engineering teaching is crucial for making educational practices more effective and aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Technologies such as AI, virtual reality, gamification, and remote laboratories personalize learning, create immersive environments, and promote socio-emotional skills, reducing the need for physical infrastructure and the environmental impact. Pedagogical differentiation and innovative methodologies make teaching more accessible and sustainable, modernizing education and meeting current social and environmental demands.

3.1. Artificial Intelligence and Personalization of Teaching: How to Adapt Content to the Pace and Individual Needs of Students

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has revolutionized the way we learn, particularly through adaptive learning tools that tailor content to each student’s difficulties, abilities, and pace of learning [46,47]. These technologies provide real-time feedback and assistance, allowing students to progress more efficiently while receiving support aligned with their individual profiles [48]. This personalized approach increases student engagement and contributes to more effective learning processes.

One recent example is the Artificial Intelligence-Enabled Intelligent Assistant (AIEIA), developed by Sajja et al. (2024) [49]. This system combines AI and natural language processing to facilitate access to information, streamline assessments, and offer individualized learning support. Similarly, intelligent tutoring systems leverage AI algorithms to analyze student performance and adjust instructional strategies accordingly, offering customized feedback and dynamically adapting learning materials [35,50].

The integration of AI into education aligns with key psychopedagogical principles. According to Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 2017) [51], adaptive AI systems contribute to more efficient learning by reducing extraneous cognitive load and delivering content at an appropriate level of complexity. This ensures that learners focus their mental resources on meaningful understanding and schema construction.

From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2020) [52], AI can enhance intrinsic motivation by addressing the three basic psychological needs:

• Autonomy, through self-paced learning and personalized content paths;
• Competence, by offering immediate, specific, and constructive feedback;
• Relatedness, when AI tools are embedded in collaborative platforms that promote interaction and peer learning.

In a practical application, Tang and Hare (2023) [53] examined how intelligent tutoring systems combined with gamification elements in an engineering learning context enhanced student motivation and engagement. The study, implemented via a serious game, demonstrated that personalization supported by AI and the motivational appeal of gamified environments can significantly improve learning outcomes.

Möller et al. (2024) [54] evaluated an AI-powered adaptive platform at the International University of Applied Sciences and reported a 27% average reduction in study time over a three-month period. This finding highlights the practical benefits of psychopedagogical personalization using AI in real academic settings.

However, integrating AI into education also raises ethical and practical challenges. Concerns related to data privacy, algorithmic transparency, and the risk of over-dependence on automation must be addressed [55]. It is essential that AI complements, rather than replaces, the role of educators—who are crucial in fostering critical thinking, empathy, and human connection.

Thus, effective integration of AI requires adequate teacher training, institutional readiness, and policies that ensure equitable, transparent, and pedagogically sound use of these technologies. When implemented responsibly, AI has the potential to adapt teaching to the diverse needs of learners, making education more inclusive, efficient, and engaging.

3.2. Virtual and Augmented Reality: Impact on Experiential Learning and Knowledge Retention

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) have emerged as innovative tools that allow students to engage with realistic three-dimensional environments and simulations of physical phenomena and systems engineering. These technologies help bridge the gap between theory and practice, enhancing experiential learning, facilitating comprehension of complex concepts, and improving knowledge retention [22,23]. Importantly, VR and AR increase student motivation and interactivity, making learning more dynamic and engaging [56].

Additionally, VR and AR can contribute to environmental sustainability, aligning with SDG 13, by reducing the need for physical materials and minimizing the carbon footprint associated with travel or energy-intensive physical laboratories. By enabling remote simulations and immersive experiences, these technologies reduce environmental impacts traditionally linked to engineering education infrastructure. Although further studies are needed to quantify these effects, preliminary analyses suggest significant potential to lower resource consumption and emissions through digital substitution.

Recent empirical evidence supports the pedagogical potential of VR. Anjos et al. (2024) [57] conducted a controlled experiment in a higher education engineering program, comparing traditional instruction with VR-based learning. Students in the VR group demonstrated a 29% improvement in knowledge retention compared to the control group. In addition, a meta-analysis of 72 studies reported consistent moderate gains in practical skills associated with VR use in STEM disciplines. These findings mark a shift from theoretical discussions to demonstrable educational impact, showing how VR can be successfully implemented within institutional contexts.

Despite these benefits, challenges remain. High costs, lack of adapted teaching materials, and resistance from educators and students can limit VR/AR adoption [58,59,60]. Addressing these barriers requires institutional investment in teacher training and research focused on optimizing the psychopedagogical integration of these tools [61].

To synthesize the main tools discussed and broaden the analysis with a psychopedagogical focus,

Table 1. Digital technologies in engineering education: applications and psychopedagogical challenges.

Technology	Applications in Engineering	Potential Benefits	Psychopedagogical Challenges	Integration Strategies
Augmented Reality (AR)	3D project visualization	Visual learning, engagement	Cognitive overload, accessibility	Simplified UI, scaffolder tasks, multimodal cues
Virtual Reality (VR)	Immersive simulations	Experiential learning	Need for pedagogical mediation	Guided progression, feedback loops, social tasks
Gamification	Assessments and motivation	Increase in intrinsic motivation	Poor design can cause frustration	Clear goals, meaningful rewards, autonomy support
Remote Laboratories	Distance experiments	Flexibility, scalability	Lack of social interaction	Collaborative tools, synchronous sessions
Artificial Intelligence (AI)	Personalized teaching	Adaptive feedback	Algorithmic opacity	Transparent algorithms, explainable feedback

Source: Developed by the authors based on the reviewed literature.

is presented below, outlining the digital technologies applied in engineering education along with their benefits and challenges.

The application of cognitive load management and motivation enhancement principles is crucial for the successful use of VR and AR in engineering education. Designing learning experiences that minimize extraneous cognitive demands while supporting autonomy, competence, and relatedness can optimize student engagement and learning outcomes. However, further empirical studies and practical examples are needed to deepen the understanding of these integrations and guide educators in harnessing the full potential of emerging digital technologies.

3.3. Gamification and Project-Based Learning: Greater Engagement and Development of Socio-Emotional Skills

The integration of active methodologies, such as gamification and project-based learning (PBL), has proven to be effective in engineering education, promoting greater engagement and the development of socio-emotional skills in students [62,63,64], which are essential for the labor market [65,66]. Gamification applies game elements, such as scores, levels, and rewards, to increase student motivation and engagement. In engineering education, this approach has been used to make learning more dynamic and interactive, improving content retention and the understanding of complex concepts [67].

On the other hand, PBL places students at the center of their learning, challenging them to solve real problems through practical projects, facilitating the connection between theory and practice, and preparing students for professional challenges [68], including applications in engineering [41,69].

The combination of gamification and PBL can enhance the benefits of both methodologies. While gamification increases engagement and motivation through playful elements, PBL provides a practical context for the application of these elements, promoting experiential learning [70,71]. This integrated model can be observed in initiatives that use serious games within engineering projects, in which students face real challenges in a gamified environment, fostering both technical development and socio-emotional skills. In the study by Segundo et al. (2022) [72], PBL was applied in the development and kinematic modeling of robotic manipulators, integrating disciplines such as computer-aided design, robotics, and microcontrollers, resulting in more meaningful and interdisciplinary learning.

The effectiveness of gamification and PBL in engineering education can also be interpreted through the lens of Cognitive Load Theory [51] and Self-Determination Theory [52], previously discussed in Section 3.1. In this context, gamified tasks help reduce extraneous load through clear goals and feedback, while PBL fosters germane load by promoting active knowledge construction. Both methodologies can support intrinsic motivation by addressing autonomy, competence, and relatedness through collaborative, meaningful tasks.

In summary, the integration of gamification and PBL in engineering education offers a solid approach for the development of technical and socio-emotional skills, aligning with contemporary demands for professional training. Recognizing this importance, educational models have been developed that design experiences based on PBL where it is emphasized that the teacher or instructor must be trained for this purpose [62].

Although gamification in engineering education commonly employs game elements in standard learning environments, its implementation through serious games—digital games explicitly designed for educational purposes—has gained prominence. These games allow students to simulate professional challenges in realistic, often collaborative contexts, enhancing not only technical learning but also ethical and socio-environmental decision-making. However, as highlighted by Cucuzzella [73], the use of computational systems to quantify intangible urban qualities in game environments reveals a critical limitation: games, even when carefully designed, may struggle to capture the full spectrum of qualitative, contextual, and emotional dimensions that influence real-world learning and behavior. This insight invites caution: while gamification and serious games promote engagement and experiential learning, their pedagogical design must consider these qualitative gaps to ensure that educational goals are not overly simplified or misrepresented.

3.4. Remote Laboratories and Digital Simulations: Accessibility and Reduction in Environmental Impact in Experimental Teaching

Remote laboratories and digital simulations have been established as effective alternatives for experimental teaching in engineering, allowing students to carry out experiments remotely through digital interfaces [30]. This approach expands accessibility, as it removes geographical and temporal restrictions, and reduces the environmental impact of practical activities by decreasing the need for extensive physical spaces and minimizing maintenance costs [74,75], making education more inclusive and sustainable [31].

Digital simulations, in turn, use computer models to represent physical phenomena and engineering systems, allowing students to explore concepts and carry out tests in a safe and controlled environment. Unlike remote laboratories, which involve real equipment, simulations offer an interactive virtual space where it is possible to manipulate variables and observe results in real time. This approach supports the understanding of complex concepts.

The democratization of engineering education is one of the main benefits of these technologies, as it enables students from remote regions or with financial limitations to access high-quality laboratories and simulations, without the costs associated with traditional infrastructure [14]. Furthermore, integration with online learning platforms promotes collaborative interactions, allowing the exchange of experiences and the discussion of solutions between students and teachers [4].

From an environmental point of view, the use of these technologies significantly reduces the consumption of disposable materials, such as chemical reagents and electronic components, as well as minimizing energy consumption and the carbon footprint associated with the operation of traditional laboratories [23,76]. Therefore, experiential teaching is better aligned with the principles of sustainable development.

Despite the benefits, the implementation of these technologies still faces challenges, such as the need for adequate technological infrastructure, including high-speed internet connection and compatible devices, which may limit access for some students [77]. Moreover, training teachers to integrate these tools effectively is essential to ensure the quality of learning [40].

By presenting a range of technological strategies that go beyond operational improvements and aim to enhance personalization, engagement, and accessibility in engineering education, this study highlights the need for a comprehensive and systemic view that integrates these technologies with psychopedagogical principles and sustainability [33]. Each strategy—from AI to gamification, and from VR to remote laboratories—contributes to the transformation of educational practices when aligned with the principles of active learning, inclusion, and environmental responsibility. However, for these tools to result in meaningful and lasting learning outcomes, it is essential to incorporate structured psychopedagogical frameworks that address cognitive load, student motivation, and socio-emotional development [9,52]. The effective implementation of these technologies must be guided not only by their technical potential, but also by a solid theoretical foundation that ensures sustainable educational innovation. In doing so, engineering education can truly evolve into a model that is technologically advanced, pedagogically sound, and socially and environmentally responsible.

4. Psychopedagogical Challenges and Pathways Toward Sustainability

Engineering education has been significantly transformed by technological innovation, prompting a critical reflection on the psychopedagogical challenges that accompany this shift. Key aspects such as student adaptation to digital methodologies, inclusive access, mental health support, and the balance between innovation and environmental sustainability are central to ensuring educational quality and long-term resilience. Furthermore, it is fundamental to understand how psychopedagogical approaches can influence the impact of these technologies and promote more humanized and effective teaching [11].

Among the main challenges, managing cognitive load and fostering students’ intrinsic motivation emerge as central factors for the successful integration of technology, paving the way for a detailed analysis of these concepts in the next section.

4.1. The Role of Cognitive Load and Motivation in Adapting to New Technologies

Emerging technologies such as virtual reality (VR) and gamification offer promising avenues for enhancing motivation and learning outcomes. However, their effectiveness depends on well-designed instructional strategies that manage mental effort and promote learner engagement [51,52].

In immersive or gamified environments, poor instructional design can increase task complexity and divert attention from core content. To avoid this, educational experiences must be structured to minimize unnecessary demands, ensuring that learners can focus on meaningful tasks that support knowledge construction.

Motivation also plays a critical role in how students interact with digital tools. The design of digital activities should provide meaningful choices, constructive feedback, and opportunities for social interaction. When aligned with pedagogical goals, gamified elements can make learning more dynamic and rewarding, enhancing student engagement. However, it is crucial that these elements support learning rather than distract from it.

To synthesize the main psychopedagogical principles discussed and illustrate their practical integration with digital technologies,

Table 2. Psychopedagogical principles and integration strategies with digital technologies.

Psychopedagogical Principle	Purpose	Integration Strategies with Technology
Cognitive Load (Sweller)	Reduce unnecessary overload	Simple interface, avoid distractions
Intrinsic Motivation (Ryan & Deci)	Foster autonomous engagement	Gamification with clear goals and feedback
Active Learning (Mayer)	Promote knowledge construction	Hands-on activities with VR/AR
Digital Inclusion	Ensure equitable access	Accessible, mobile-friendly platforms
Socio-emotional Well-being	Support mental health and motivation	Empathetic design, adaptive pacing

Source: Developed by the authors based on the reviewed literature.

presents the key principles alongside their intended purposes and corresponding technological strategies.

Problem-based learning (PBL) and Inquiry-Based Learning (IBL) are pedagogical approaches that promote active student participation. These methodologies help structure learning experiences so that knowledge is built progressively and meaningfully [16]. However, their effectiveness depends on the level of guidance provided. Studies show that structured inquiry, which balances autonomy with support, helps reduce overload and improves long-term retention.

For example, Carvalho Ribeiro et al. (2020) [78] examined the use of the gamified platform Classcraft in a Brazilian technical high school. When integrated into structured planning with clear learning objectives, the tool significantly increased student engagement. This reinforces the importance of aligning gamified tools with sound pedagogical strategies that support effective learning, particularly in hybrid or blended contexts.

Such strategies directly contribute to SDG 4.1, by enhancing learning outcomes in secondary education; to SDG 4.3, by promoting inclusive and engaging environments in technical and vocational education; and to SDG 4.5, by advancing equity in educational opportunities.

In this regard, the successful implementation of VR and gamification requires careful attention to both cognitive demands and motivational factors. By designing activities that are cognitively manageable and intrinsically engaging, and by using methodologies such as PBL and IBL with appropriate scaffolding, it becomes possible to create more inclusive, effective, and meaningful learning experiences for all students.

4.2. Digital Inclusion and Accessibility: Ensuring That Technological Innovation Benefits All Students

The expansion of educational technologies must ensure digital inclusion, guaranteeing equitable access for students from different socio-economic backgrounds [14]. This involves not only providing devices and internet connectivity, but also adapting interfaces to various learning styles and special needs [11].

Given student diversity, digital inclusion must be approached from both a technological and pedagogical perspective, with curricular adaptation and psychopedagogical support [79]. Assistive technologies such as screen readers, automatic subtitles, and adaptable interfaces are essential for creating inclusive educational environments [80]. For this, it is essential to implement policies that promote adequate digital infrastructure and train teachers in the effective use of these tools [13].

The digital divide remains a significant challenge in Latin America, where many students lack access to adequate digital resources. Initiatives such as “Conectar Igualdad” in Argentina show that the provision of devices and training can lead toward more equitable education. The study by Henriques et al. (2023) [79] analyzes the evolution of digital competences and the levels of digital inclusion among adults who completed undergraduate degrees through online higher education between 2011 and 2018. The results indicate that digital education had a positive impact on the development of these competences and on the digital inclusion of graduates. These findings contribute to the understanding of digital inequalities by showing how online education can act as a factor of digital inclusion for adults with different socio-economic and professional profiles.

Assistive technologies facilitate the participation of students with visual, auditory, or cognitive disabilities through screen readers, automatic captioning, and universal design for learning (UDL) software. Likewise, augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) platforms support individuals with speech or language difficulties [80].

Teacher training in accessible technologies and inclusive strategies is essential to enhance the impact of digital inclusion. According to UNESCO (2021) [6], in the Digital Education Agenda 2021–2025, the focus is on strengthening technological infrastructure and teacher training to ensure equitable benefits. The agenda outlines its background, guidelines, objectives, and structure, organized into five pillars: physical infrastructure (connectivity and equipment), digital learning (curriculum, methodology, content, and resources), teacher development (training and technical–pedagogical support), communication and promotion (dissemination and digital repository), and innovation (labs and advisory councils).

Recognizing the deep relationship between society and technology, this agenda aims not only at the development of digital skills but also at the promotion of digital citizenship—that is, the creation of a digital culture that enables the use of tools with competence and awareness of rights and responsibilities.

Projects such as the European IDEAL and initiatives like the Digital Camp in Spain exemplify the fundamental role of technology in promoting social and educational inclusion. IDEAL develops digital tools adapted to the specific needs of people with autism, facilitating their access to more inclusive and personalized educational environments [81].

In conclusion, ensuring that technological innovation benefits all students requires a combination of adequate infrastructure, assistive technologies, teacher training, and inclusive policies, thus building an accessible and equitable educational system.

Ensuring digital inclusion, however, is not enough if we do not also consider the emotional and psychological impact of this new educational reality, a topic that will be explored in greater depth in the next section on mental health and well-being.

4.3. Mental Health and Well-Being in Digital Education: Challenges of Information Overload and Psychopedagogical Strategies for Its Mitigation

Digital education can have a significant impact on students’ mental health, particularly due to information overload and the absence of face-to-face interaction [38]. The transition to virtual environments requires emotional and cognitive adaptation, which, in many cases, generates anxiety and a decrease in academic performance [77].

In this context, psychopedagogical strategies play a crucial role in mitigating the adverse effects of educational digitalization. Durlak et al. (2022) [82] highlight that approaches based on socio-emotional learning (SEL) contribute to the development of resilience and stress management skills. In the same vein, Valente et al. (2022) [83] emphasize that emotional intelligence skills are critical for 21st-century teachers, not only to support their own well-being but also to foster emotionally supportive and effective learning environments for students. Likewise, the creation of spaces that encourage interaction between students and teachers can reduce perceived isolation and strengthen the sense of belonging [84].

A key element in this context is the regulation of screen time through hybrid teaching models that combine face-to-face and virtual activities. This approach makes it possible to balance the cognitive and emotional demands inherent in digital learning [9], as well as to facilitate moments of reflection, qualitative feedback, and psychopedagogical support, which are essential to counteract the effects of information overload.

Sweller (2017) [51] warns that virtual environments intensify the risk of cognitive overload, as they expose students to multiple sources and formats of information simultaneously. The simultaneous presence of texts, audio, videos, and interactivity can exceed processing capacity, generating mental fatigue and difficulties in concentration. This hyper stimulation, together with the lack of face-to-face interaction, contributes to isolation and increased anxiety, as social cues and direct feedback between teachers and students are weakened [77].

To counteract these dynamics, various authors propose incorporating SEL into digital curricula. Durlak et al. (2022) [82] show that SEL programs strengthen self-regulation, empathy, and stress tolerance, reducing anxiety levels and improving academic performance. In this regard, Salmon (2004) [85] suggests the creation of virtual support spaces, such as moderated forums and online tutorials, which promote a sense of community and allow for the early detection of distress. His multi-stage model highlights the active role of moderators in energizing discussions, resolving doubts, and encouraging participation. He also recommends the clear structuring of forums and the regular implementation of tutorials (check-ins) via chat or videoconference, which ensures continuous feedback and facilitates the identification of signs of demotivation or isolation. These e-moderating practices reinforce the sense of belonging and allow for closer monitoring of students’ emotional well-being.

In this regard, Li et al. (2024) [86] investigate the integration of mindfulness practices with digital technologies to promote emotional and psychological well-being. The study, conducted with experienced practitioners, reveals the use of various technological tools—such as mobile applications, live streams, virtual reality environments, and wearable devices—to support both individual and group mindfulness practices. Participants emphasize the importance of balancing the use of these technologies with in-person activities, given the potential negative effects of prolonged exposure to digital devices. Furthermore, the study offers valuable insights into the mindful use of such technologies, while also highlighting ethical challenges related to data privacy and security. These findings underscore the need for clear guidelines and responsible digital approaches in the development of well-being-oriented interventions.

In short, mitigating the negative impact of educational digitalization requires a comprehensive approach that combines instructional design based on reduced cognitive load principles, the integration of socio-emotional learning, continuous psychopedagogical support, the creation of virtual support spaces, and the adoption of hybrid models that regulate screen time and strengthen direct interaction.

In addition to the psychopedagogical and emotional challenges, it is equally urgent to consider the environmental impacts of the growing digitalization of education, a topic that will be explored in the next section on sustainability.

4.4. Sustainability in Technological Education: How to Balance Innovation, Efficiency, and Environmental Impact?

The introduction of educational technologies also raises questions about sustainability and efficiency. The use of remote laboratories and digital simulations significantly reduces the consumption of disposable materials and the carbon footprint associated with traditional laboratories [76]. These tools make it possible to carry out experiments virtually, eliminating the need for physical resources such as chemical substances, paper, water, or excessive electricity, thus contributing to a more ecological pedagogical approach. Poo et al. (2023) [87] state that these digital environments can be reused indefinitely, ensuring scalability and equal access for students in different geographical and socio-economic contexts. By reducing the logistical costs and environmental impacts, these solutions not only promote more sustainable learning, but also reflect an institutional commitment to responsible educational practices aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [13].

However, it is essential to ensure that technological infrastructure is developed in an environmentally responsible manner, considering aspects such as energy efficiency and the proper disposal of electronic equipment [4]. This involves implementing recycling policies and electronic waste management strategies that minimize the environmental impact. In addition, the adoption of sustainable technologies, such as the use of renewable energy to power data centers, helps reduce the carbon footprint associated with digital education. Likewise, it is necessary to raise awareness among educational institutions and users about responsible technological practices that promote a balance between innovation and environmental sustainability.

In addition, it is essential to discuss the concept of digital sustainability, which refers to the conscious development and use of educational technologies to minimize the environmental impact. Damasceno et al. (2024) [88] point out that practices such as server optimization, the use of renewable energy in data centers, and the implementation of open-source educational platforms can significantly reduce the environmental impact of the digitalization of education. The promotion of a culture of digital sustainability requires training teachers and students in the responsible use of technology, adopting institutional policies with environmental criteria, and encouraging collaboration between sectors to drive sustainable educational innovations.

Lastly, initiatives that promote the circular economy in technological education, such as the reuse of electronic devices and the long-term use of digital teaching materials, are promising ways of balancing innovation and sustainability in engineering education [89]. These practices not only reduce the volume of electronic waste but also lower the operational costs of educational institutions. Moreover, they foster an ecological mindset among future professionals, encouraging the design and development of technological solutions that consider the entire product life cycle. Implementing these strategies also reinforces the institutions’ commitment to the principles of social and environmental responsibility.

Therefore, for technological innovation in engineering education to be truly effective and sustainable, it is essential to consider the psychopedagogical challenges involved and to adopt strategies that promote inclusion, well-being, and sustainability in the academic environment. With adequate planning and a well-structured psychopedagogical approach, it is possible to transform engineering education into a more accessible, efficient model aligned with the principles of sustainable development.

Thus, sustainable practices in the use of educational technologies must be intrinsically connected to psychopedagogical approaches to ensure innovative and responsible engineering education, a connection that will be detailed in the following section.

4.5. Interrelation Between Technology, Psychopedagogy, and Sustainability in Engineering Education

This section proposes an integrative perspective linking technology, psychopedagogy, and sustainability, highlighting how these three pillars should converge to promote more inclusive, effective, and environmentally responsible engineering education.

The analysis of the literature shows that the effective integration of technological innovations in engineering education directly depends on the articulation between technological, psychopedagogical, and sustainable aspects. This interrelated triad constitutes a fundamental framework for promoting quality, inclusive, and environmentally responsible education.

The UNESCO report (2019) [13] highlights the importance of education for sustainable development as a fundamental pillar to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 4.7. The document emphasizes the need to transform education by incorporating knowledge, skills, and attitudes that promote sustainable lifestyles, global citizenship, and respect for cultural diversity. In this context, the European project OpenU emerges as a practical example of this integration, combining digital platforms, teacher training, and sustainable guidelines to promote collaborative and accessible learning experiences across several European Union countries. Through its focus on pedagogical innovation and transnational collaboration, OpenU contributes concretely to SDG 4.3, by facilitating access to higher education across borders; to SDG 4.5, by addressing inequalities in digital learning opportunities; and to SDG 4.7, by embedding sustainability and global citizenship into its educational frameworks. This synergy between educational policies and digital technologies exemplifies a concrete pathway toward a more inclusive, transformative, and future-oriented education.

Beyond the integration of policy and digital platforms, it is essential to highlight the formative role of higher education in fostering deeper engagement with sustainability. In addition to expanding access to and the quality of engineering education, university courses play a fundamental role in shaping critical awareness and stimulating students’ investigative curiosity about sustainability-related issues. The literature highlights that the use of active methodologies, combined with sustainable digital technologies, can foster students’ intrinsic interest, awakening a lasting motivation to explore and delve into complex socio-environmental challenges [90,91]. Recent research reinforces the strategic role of sustainable education in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly through the integration of transformative pedagogies that promote critical thinking, social responsibility, and complex problem-solving [90,91,92]. This educational approach goes beyond the mere transmission of knowledge, transforming the academic environment into a space where engagement, creativity, and the ability to propose innovative solutions to sustainable development challenges are encouraged and cultivated. In this way, universities not only contribute to technical learning, but also shape critical and proactive agents capable of positively influencing the socio-environmental future.

To better illustrate this integrative perspective,

Table 3. Conceptual summary of the triangular relationship between technology, psychopedagogy, and sustainability.

Pillar	Key Elements	Contributions to Engineering Education
Technology	Digital tools (VR, gamification, remote laboratories), personalization, accessibility	Expands access, reduces environmental impact, facilitates pedagogical innovation
Psychopedagogy	Cognitive load management, intrinsic motivation, inclusion, mental health, active methodologies	Ensures effective learning, emotional support, inclusion, and engagement
Sustainability	Reduction in resource consumption, electronic waste management, social inclusion, energy efficiency	Promotes environmental responsibility, social equity, and economic viability

Source: Developed by the authors based on the reviewed literature.

presents a conceptual synthesis of the triangular relationship between technology, psychopedagogy, and sustainability in engineering education. This framework highlights how each pillar contributes to shaping a more inclusive, effective, and environmentally responsible learning environment.

In the technological domain, digital resources such as virtual reality, gamification, and remote laboratories provide new pedagogical opportunities, broaden access to knowledge, and contribute to reducing the environmental impact associated with traditional practices [87]. However, the success of this implementation depends on adequate psychopedagogical support, which considers the management of cognitive load, the stimulation of intrinsic motivation, and attention to students’ mental health, ensuring that the use of technology supports learning without causing overload or exclusion [82].

Sustainability encompasses both environmental aspects—such as reducing natural resource consumption and managing electronic waste responsibly—and social aspects, by promoting digital inclusion and equitable access to technology [6]. Energy-efficient infrastructures and institutional policies that promote digital sustainability are essential to ensure the long-term impact of educational innovation.

The integration of technology, psychopedagogy, and sustainability creates a holistic educational model that prepares critical, ethical professionals aware of their socio-environmental responsibilities. Educational policies and teaching practices that recognize this interdependence are key to developing engineering education that is innovative, inclusive, and aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals.

This interplay must guide policy, curriculum design, and the use of technology to ensure innovation supports both sound pedagogical approaches and sustainability.

While gamification supports motivation, engagement, and learning outcomes (SDG 4.1), collaborative platforms like OpenU address broader challenges such as access, teacher development, and global competence integration (SDG 4.3 and 4.7).

5. Conclusions

In summary, this study sought to address the research questions proposed in the Introduction by articulating how psychopedagogical principles can inform the integration of digital technologies in engineering education; how educational technologies can contribute to sustainability goals; and how a conceptual framework can guide future empirical research. The insights presented here aim to provide a foundation for further investigations that explore the intersections between technological innovation, psychopedagogy, and sustainability in a more integrated and inclusive way.

This theoretical and exploratory study highlighted the main psychopedagogical challenges in the integration of digital technologies in engineering education, emphasizing crucial aspects such as cognitive load management, students’ intrinsic motivation, digital inclusion, and emotional well-being. In addition, the importance of environmental sustainability in the implementation of these educational technologies was emphasized, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals.

Beyond fostering the acquisition of technical and sustainable knowledge, university courses play a fundamental role in awakening a deep curiosity and critical engagement among the new generation of students regarding environmental and social issues. This broader education not only strengthens sustainable knowledge but also encourages students to explore these topics more thoroughly, promoting a proactive and reflective attitude toward global challenges. Thus, higher education becomes a vital space for cultivating conscious, innovative professionals committed to building a more sustainable future.

Although this article does not present empirical results, it proposes a conceptual framework that articulates the relationships between technological innovation, psychopedagogy, and sustainability, offering a reference that may guide future investigations and practical applications in the educational context.

Thus, this work contributes to a critical and integrated understanding of the potential and limitations of digital tools in engineering education, pointing to the need for empirical studies that validate and expand the reflections presented here. The relevance of this study is therefore highlighted as a basis for theoretical and practical advances that promote more inclusive, effective, and sustainable learning environments.

Therefore, although this theoretical and exploratory study offers a relevant conceptual synthesis of the psychopedagogical and sustainability challenges in integrating digital technologies into engineering education, it is important to acknowledge the limitations associated with the absence of empirical data collection and analysis. The reflections presented here should be understood as theoretical propositions, with guiding potential for future research and practical applications, but which require empirical validation. Additionally, the selection of sources and the perspective adopted reflect specific academic and cultural contexts, which should be taken into account when generalizing the findings to other educational realities.