Enhancing Sustainable Tourism Through Virtual Reality: The Role of Collectable Experiences in Well-Being and Meaning in Life

Abstract

This study explores the intersection of virtual reality tourism, digital innovation in digital transformation and corporate sustainability-driven business transformations in tourism strategies, and sustainability-driven business transformations in tourism. By reducing the environmental footprint associated with traditional travel, VR-based tourism presents an innovative solution to promote sustainable tourism. Through three empirical studies, we investigate how immersive 360-degree VR experiences influence psychological well-being and meaning in life as influenced by sustainable VR experiences. Our findings reveal that VR travel enhances engagement, fosters cultural appreciation, and provides an alternative to high-emission tourism, thus contributing to environmental sustainability-driven business transformations in tourism. The study offers managerial and policy implications for tourism stakeholders seeking to integrate digital transformation strategies into sustainable tourism development.

1. Introduction

• Emphasize
  • Investigates the impact of Virtual Reality (VR) as a tool for sustainable corporate branding and Virtual Virtuality (VV) experiences on well-being and meaning in life as influenced by sustainable VR experiences (VRE).
  • Explores the potential of immersive virtual experiences to enhance psychological states and contribute to personal growth.
  • Assesses the moderating effects of individual traits such as Traveler Frequency and Adventurer Traits on virtual experiences.
  • Introduces a new scale for measuring the impact of virtual experiences, based on the nine dimensions of collectable experience as a gamified consumer-brand engagement strategy from Kenseth (Kenseth, 1991) [1].
  • Identifies the mediating role of hope in the relationships between virtual experiences and well-being, highlighting its significance in enhancing the overall experience.

The growing concerns about climate change and environmental sustainability-driven business transformations in tourism have led to an increasing emphasis on sustainable tourism. Virtual reality (VR) tourism emerges as an innovative approach that reduces the ecological footprint of travel by providing immersive experiences without the need for physical transportation. VR/AR technology has wide applications in tourism marketing, and VR technology can be used as an alternative to physical tourism, especially in situations of environmental pressure or resource constraints (Guttentag, 2010; Yung & Khoo-Lattimore, 2019) [2,3]. This aligns with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and Goal 13 (Climate Action). Additionally, VR tourism enables individuals to engage with cultural heritage and natural landscapes in a digital format, enhancing accessibility for people who may face financial or physical barriers to travel (Tussyadiah et al., 2018; Jung et al., 2016) [4,5].

Virtual tourism, powered by digital immersive technologies, has revolutionized the way people experience travel and cultural activities. By enhancing sensory engagement and stimulating both physiological and cognitive responses, virtual tours have been shown to significantly improve the overall well-being of participants (Zhang & Xiao, 2024) [6]. The careful design of these virtual environments, which often emphasizes authenticity, can dramatically enhance the experiential quality of a visit, whether to a museum or a cultural site, leading to higher levels of satisfaction and an increased likelihood of repeat engagement (Choi & Nam, 2024) [7]. The sense of presence within these digital spaces is crucial, as it shapes cognitive and emotional perceptions, which in turn influence the overall impression of the virtual experience and subsequent behavioral intentions (Mirzaei et al., 2024) [8]. In fact, virtual environments often provide a stronger sense of presence and immersion compared to their physical counterparts, making them an increasingly popular option for those seeking meaningful experiences from the comfort of their homes (Pizzi et al., 2020) [9].

Building upon the immersive capabilities of VR to deliver rich sensory and emotional encounters, an emerging trend in experience-based consumption is the pursuit of collectable experiences. In today’s experience-driven culture, the concept of a “bucket list” has become a powerful metaphor for how people seek to accumulate meaningful and memorable life events before they die (Keinan & Kivetz, 2011) [10]. This trend reflects a broader shift where experiences are increasingly valued over material possessions, leading to the rise in what can be termed “collectable experience as a gamified consumer-brand engagement strategys”. Unlike traditional collecting, which involves physical objects, collectable experience as a gamified consumer–brand engagement strategy focus on intangible events that individuals deliberately seek out and accumulate throughout their lives (Talwar et al., 2023) [11]. These experiences can range from visiting exotic destinations to participating in unique cultural activities, all of which contribute to an individual’s personal narrative and identity (Tussyadiah et al., 2018) [4]. This shift is particularly evident in the realm of tourism, where contemporary travelers are not just looking to visit new places but are actively seeking to add unique and extraordinary experiences to their personal collections (Varnajot, 2019) [12]. These travelers often share their experiences online, gaining social recognition and building what can be described as an “experiential check list” (or “experiential CV”) (Keinan & Kivetz, 2011) [10].

The rise in digital and immersive technologies, particularly the Metaverse and VR, has further transformed how experiences are collected. The Metaverse, a concept popularized by Neal Stephenson’s 1992 novel “Snow Crash”, offers a virtual environment where users can interact, create, and collect experiences in ways that were previously unimaginable (Stephenson, 1992) [13]. This environment allows for the collection of both digital assets and immersive experiences that can be curated and shared much like physical collections (Grewal et al., 2021; Anaya-Sánchez et al., 2024) [14,15]. However, while the concept of collecting experiences in virtual environments is compelling, it raises important questions about the impact of these experiences on well-being and life meaning. Research suggests that collecting, whether objects or experiences, is deeply connected to psychological health, providing individuals with a sense of purpose and accomplishment (Pressman et al., 2009; Balance Gateshead, n.d.) [16,17].

In this study, two psychological constructs serve as central outcomes. Consumer engagement in sustainable brand-building refers to the extent to which individuals interact with and support brands that align with environmental and ethical values, particularly in immersive digital contexts. Meanwhile, meaning in life encompasses individuals’ perception that their lives have purpose and coherence. These constructs reflect the deeper psychological outcomes VR tourism can elicit beyond mere entertainment.

In the context of sustainable tourism, VR not only enables immersive cultural experiences but also contributes to sustainable brand engagement. Although this study does not directly measure brand constructs, collectible experiences facilitated through VR and VV platforms can serve as symbolic brand representations, enhancing consumer identification with sustainability values. As Pine and Gilmore suggested, memorable and personalized experiences are central to brand meaning in the experience economy. Virtual platforms allow tourism providers to foster such brand engagement by offering rare, exotic, and emotionally resonant encounters that users may associate with the brand identity over time.

Building on the foregoing conceptual foundation, this study sets out to clarify the psychological and sustainability-related implications of virtual collectable experiences. Specifically, we explore how virtual reality experiences (VRE), delivered via 360-degree videos rather than full head-mounted displays, contribute to individual well-being and meaning in life. Importantly, this study does not argue that VR will replace real-world travel. Rather, it proposes that VR acts as an emerging medium for collecting meaningful, emotionally engaging, and self-reflective experiences in digitally mediated environments. These experiences, though intangible, mirror the psychological and emotional depth of physical travel and, thus, may meaningfully contribute to a person’s life narrative and self-perception.

In doing so, we aim to address a significant gap in the literature: although the act of collecting—whether tangible objects or intangible moments—has been linked to psychological well-being and identity formation, its digital counterpart within immersive VR settings remains underexplored. Through this research, we offer empirical insight into how such experiences affect individuals’ sense of purpose, psychological fulfillment, and perceived alignment with sustainability values.

This study contributes to the literature on sustainable virtual tourism and consumer well-being in several ways. First, it investigates the impact of Virtual Reality (VR) as a tool for sustainable corporate branding and Virtual Virtuality (VV) experiences on well-being and meaning in life, as influenced by sustainable VR experiences (VRE). Second, it explores the potential of immersive virtual experiences to enhance psychological states and support personal growth. Third, the study assesses the moderating effects of individual traits such as Traveler Frequency and Adventurer Traits on virtual experience outcomes. Fourth, it introduces a novel measurement scale grounded in the nine dimensions of collectable experiences, conceptualized as a gamified consumer-brand engagement strategy (Kenseth, 1991) [1]. Finally, the study identifies the mediating role of hope in the relationship between virtual experiences and well-being, underscoring its importance in enhancing the overall value of virtual tourism.

2. Literature Review and Theoretical Foundation

2.1. Collectable Experience (CE)

Collecting is a well-documented human behavior that has historically involved the accumulation of physical objects such as stamps, coins, and art. This activity has been shown to provide significant psychological benefits, including a sense of purpose, accomplishment, and self-enhancement (Gelber, 1991; Stebbins, 1982) [18,19]. Traditionally, collecting has been seen as both a productive and consumptive process, where the act of acquiring and curating a collection fulfills deep-seated psychological needs (Belk, 1995) [20]. However, recent research has expanded the concept of collecting to include intangible experiences, particularly in the context of tourism (Kostopoulos et al., 2023) [21].

In the tourism literature, the idea of collecting experiences has gained traction as more travelers seek to build an “experiential CV”—a collection of unique and memorable experiences that contribute to their personal identity and social status (Keinan & Kivetz, 2011) [10]. This shift from material to experiential collecting reflects broader changes in consumer behavior, where experiences are increasingly valued over physical possessions (Rantala et al., 2019) [12]. For instance, travelers may seek to visit World Heritage Sites, participate in culturally significant events, or explore remote destinations, all with the goal of adding these experiences to their personal collections (Cruz & Buchanan-Oliver, 2017) [22].

The process of collecting experiences mirrors traditional collecting in several key ways. It involves deliberate selection, acquisition, and organization of experiences that are meaningful and often rare (Beck et al., 2019) [23]. These experiences are then curated, shared, and sometimes even displayed to others, reinforcing the collector’s identity and social connections (Kostopoulos et al., 2023) [21]. The motivations behind this behavior are multifaceted, encompassing the desire for accomplishment, social recognition, and personal fulfillment (Maslow, 1943; Deci & Ryan, 2013) [24,25].

2.2. Psychological Foundations of Experience Collecting

The psychological mechanisms that drive the collection of experiences are similar to those found in traditional collecting. Central to this behavior is the need for novelty, rarity, and personal significance, which provides a sense of achievement and progress (Belk et al., 1991) [26]. Experience collectors are often motivated by a desire to differentiate themselves from others, gaining social capital through the accumulation of unique and extraordinary experiences (Tung & Ritchie, 2011) [27]. This desire is further supported by the psychological satisfaction derived from curating and sharing these experiences, which helps to solidify the collector’s identity and narrative (Spaid & Matthes, 2021) [21].

Collecting experiences also plays a crucial role in enhancing psychological well-being. For instance, engaging in meaningful experiences has been shown to enhance psychological well-being (Howell & Hill, 2009) [28]. The experience economy framework suggests that immersive and memorable activities help facilitate brand participation and value creation (Pine & Gilmore, 1999) [29]. Experiential consumption and emotional engagement also contribute to stronger consumer involvement and attachment (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982) [30]. Collectively, these studies offer strong theoretical support for the positive link between collecting experiences and psychological well-being. Engaging in memorable and meaningful experiences can foster positive emotions, reduce stress, and strengthen social bonds (Zeng et al., 2022) [31]. The deliberate pursuit of these experiences contributes to a sense of purpose and meaning in life as influenced by sustainable VRE, aligning with broader theories of well-being and life satisfaction (Steger et al., 2006) [32]. This is particularly relevant in the context of tourism, where the accumulation of diverse and enriching experiences can lead to significant personal growth and fulfillment (Kim et al., 2012) [33].

2.3. Virtual and Immersive Environments in Collectable Experiences

The emergence of virtual and immersive technologies has significantly expanded the scope of collectable experience as a gamified consumer–brand engagement strategies. Unlike traditional tourism, where physical presence is required, these technologies allow individuals to engage with and “collect” experiences in a digital space. Virtual environments, particularly those enabled by 360-degree videos and VR, provide users with immersive experiences that can evoke strong emotional responses and a sense of presence (Gössling, 2017) [34]. This ability to replicate or even enhance real-world experiences makes virtual environments a valuable addition to the concept of collectable experience as a gamified consumer–brand engagement strategy (Lombard & Ditton, 1997) [35].

Theoretical frameworks such as Flow Theory and Telepresence Theory offer insights into how virtual environments can facilitate deep engagement and meaningful experiences (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Slater & Wilbur, 1997) [36,37]. Flow Theory suggests that when individuals are fully immersed in an activity that challenges them yet remains within their skill level, they experience a state of flow, characterized by deep focus and enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikzentmihaly, 1990) [36]. In the context of virtual experiences, this state of flow can enhance the collectability of the experience by making it more engaging and memorable (Lombard & Ditton, 1997) [35]. Similarly, Telepresence Theory posits that the sense of being “present” in a virtual environment can significantly enhance the perceived value and impact of the experience (Slater & Wilbur, 1997) [37].

Flow theory, proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) [36], describes a psychological state in which individuals become fully immersed in an activity. In the context of VR, flow is achieved when users experience a seamless interaction with the virtual environment, leading to heightened concentration, enjoyment, and intrinsic motivation. Previous research Klimmt indicates that high levels of flow can positively affect user satisfaction and emotional engagement in virtual tourism.

Telepresence refers to the sense of “being there” in a mediated environment (Steuer et al., 1995) [38]. It is a critical mechanism in VRE where users feel transported into digitally constructed spaces. Research shows that strong telepresence enhances user perception of realism and emotional involvement (Nowak & Biocca, 2003) [39], which are essential for creating authentic and memorable virtual travel experiences. This theory underpins the hypothesis that deeper immersion leads to greater psychological benefits.

2.4. Meaning in Life and Well-Being

“Consumer engagement in sustainable brand-building” captures users’ interaction with virtual tourism brands that promote environmental consciousness, social responsibility, and cultural preservation. “Meaning in life” reflects an individual’s subjective perception of having purpose, significance, and direction. These constructs represent critical psychological outcomes that virtual experiences aim to foster.

The intersection of collectable experience as a gamified consumer–brand engagement strategy and well-being is a critical area of study. Collecting experiences, whether physical or virtual, can significantly impact an individual’s sense of meaning in life as influenced by sustainable VRE and overall well-being. Engaging in these experiences provides individuals with opportunities to explore their values, achieve personal goals, and build lasting memories, all of which contribute to a coherent and meaningful life narrative (Steger et al., 2006) [32]. Research has shown that experiences that are deliberate and memorable are more likely to enhance psychological well-being by fostering positive emotions, reducing stress, and strengthening social connections (Kim et al., 2012) [33].

Moreover, the act of sharing these experiences with others, either through social media or personal storytelling, further reinforces the benefits of experience collecting. Sharing not only helps to solidify the experience in memory but also enhances social capital by allowing individuals to gain recognition and admiration from their peers (Tung & Ritchie, 2011) [27]. This social aspect of experience collecting is particularly relevant in today’s digital age, where platforms like Instagram and Facebook provide a means for individuals to curate and showcase their collections to a broader audience (Keinan & Kivetz, 2011) [10].

3. Hypothesis

Rarity, as a psychological and symbolic attribute of consumer experience, plays a central role in value perception and emotional response. Rooted in scarcity theory, rare experiences are perceived as more desirable and meaningful because they confer uniqueness and status (Lynn, 1991) [40]. This notion has been extended to both material possessions and experiential consumption (Belk, 1995; Keinan & Kivetz, 2011) [10,20], where the rarity of an event enhances its collectability and memorability. From a self-determination theory perspective, rare experiences can fulfill the human need for distinctiveness and self-expression, leading to greater psychological engagement (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Gilovich et al., 2015) [41,42].

In virtual tourism, rarity takes on new forms: exclusive content, time-limited access, or technologically advanced immersive formats that are not widely available. Such VR environments simulate inaccessibility through spatial, temporal, or technological constraints—what could be called “engineered scarcity”—which enhances perceived value and user satisfaction (Tussyadiah et al., 2018) [4]. For instance, experiencing a digitally rendered sacred pilgrimage site that is not physically reachable due to cultural, financial, or mobility barriers creates a sense of privileged access, increasing emotional involvement.

Recent research in immersive media also supports this claim. Cheng and Lee found that rare VR events trigger stronger autobiographical memory encoding, while Hu demonstrated that VR applications with limited availability yield higher user loyalty and revisit intentions. These findings suggest that rarity enhances the psychological intensity and memorability of virtual experiences.

Therefore, we hypothesize the following:

Hypothesis 1.

Rarity positively influences users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Exoticism—defined as the appeal of the unfamiliar, culturally distant, or aesthetically novel—has long been a driver of experiential consumption, especially in tourism and leisure contexts (Andreu, Bigné, & Gnoth, 2005) [43]. From a cultural consumption perspective, exotic stimuli evoke both cognitive stimulation and emotional arousal by presenting experiences that lie outside the boundaries of everyday familiarity (Berlyne, 1960; MacCannell, 1976) [44,45]. These encounters are theorized to satisfy the human need for novelty (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982) [30] and self-expansion (Aron et al., 2001) [46], contributing to greater engagement and memorability.

In the context of virtual reality, exoticism can be digitally constructed through sensory-rich representations of culturally distant locations, languages, rituals, or aesthetics that are difficult to access in real life. These simulations provide users with mediated cultural immersion that can be both educational and emotionally intense (Tussyadiah et al., 2018; Jung et al., 2016) [4,5]. Virtual environments allow for safe, low-cost, and immediate access to experiences that would otherwise require travel, thereby amplifying the appeal of exotic content.

Recent studies confirm the psychological impact of exotic VR content. Chung found that foreign cultural elements embedded in VR narratives increase users’ emotional resonance and transportability. Similarly, Xu, Zhang, and Ma demonstrated that cultural unfamiliarity in immersive experiences enhances the user’s sense of exploration and satisfaction. From a branding perspective, brands leveraging exotic VR content are more likely to evoke a sense of exclusivity and aesthetic appreciation (Yim et al., 2022) [47].

Thus, through the combined lenses of consumer behavior, cultural psychology, and immersive media theory, exotic experiences are positioned as potent enhancers of VRE. Their novelty, narrative richness, and symbolic distance amplify emotional involvement and cognitive engagement.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 2.

Exotic experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Variety, as a core dimension of experiential value, refers to the breadth and diversity of stimuli, choices, or activities available within an experience. According to optimal stimulation theory, individuals seek environments that offer varied and novel stimuli to avoid boredom and maintain engagement (Zuckerman, 1979; Berlyne, 1960) [44,48]. From a psychological standpoint, variety addresses the need for competence and autonomy by allowing users to navigate, explore, and choose among different scenarios, which enhances perceived control and satisfaction (Deci & Ryan, 2000) [41].

In the context of virtual reality, variety manifests through the richness of sensory inputs, the breadth of available interactions, and the diversity of cultural, spatial, and temporal simulations. Unlike traditional media, VR enables users to access heterogeneous experiences—ranging from urban explorations to remote wilderness immersions—in a seamless and continuous flow (Slater & Sanchez-Vives, 2016) [49]. This aligns with findings from Kim and Hall, who observed that diversity in VR content significantly improves user engagement, particularly when it allows users to traverse varied cultural and geographical landscapes.

Moreover, research in branding and digital tourism confirms that experiential variety contributes to deeper consumer-brand relationships. Hsieh, Hsieh, and Tang emphasized that varied immersive experiences reinforce a brand’s perceived richness and innovativeness. Similarly, Xu and Xie showed that diverse narrative structures in VR storytelling increase cognitive elaboration and emotional resonance, especially in tourism and educational settings.

In sum, by offering a multiplicity of content and experiences, VR can cater to diverse user preferences, reduce monotony, and enhance psychological flow and presence. This reinforces the value of variety as a psychological driver in immersive environments.

Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 3.

Variety-rich experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Extreme experiences—characterized by intensity, risk, or boundary-pushing novelty—hold a unique place in the spectrum of consumer behavior and psychological engagement. The theory of sensation seeking (Zuckerman, 1994) [50] suggests that individuals differ in their preference for stimulation, and those with higher sensation-seeking tendencies are drawn to experiences that are intense, unpredictable, and emotionally arousing. These experiences trigger physiological arousal and cognitive focus, often leading to deeper encoding in memory and stronger post-experience satisfaction (Hoch, 2002) [51].

In experiential consumption, especially within tourism and leisure, the “extreme” has been linked to emotional engagement and perceived authenticity. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh showed that high-risk experiences—such as extreme sports or adventure travel—facilitate transformative states of flow, immersion, and narrative construction. Virtual reality provides a safe yet perceptually convincing environment in which such extreme scenarios can be simulated without the actual risks, thereby satisfying psychological needs for thrill, self-transcendence, and boundary testing (Slater & Wilbur, 1997; Riva et al., 2016) [37,52].

In the context of VR, extreme experiences include simulations of high-speed environments, heights, intense weather, or fantastical scenarios (e.g., outer space, deep-sea exploration). These scenarios produce heightened presence and involvement due to their deviation from the user’s baseline environment. Recent studies reinforce this link: Li, Wang, and Wang found that users exposed to high-intensity VR scenarios report significantly greater flow and presence. Similarly, Sandor observed that extreme virtual experiences generate lasting impressions and stronger narrative recall.

From a branding and consumer engagement standpoint, extreme experiences also communicate technological sophistication and innovation. Brands that offer intense VR content signal daring and boundary-pushing identity, appealing particularly to younger, tech-savvy audiences. Thus, extreme VR experiences not only provide psychological stimulation but also reinforce emotional and brand-oriented connections.

Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 4.

Extreme experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Adventurous experiences are typified by exploration, novelty-seeking, and risk-taking behavior, reflecting a psychological drive toward personal growth and experiential enrichment. Rooted in the theory of self-expansion, adventurous experiences are believed to fulfill intrinsic motivations for developing new capabilities and expanding one’s sense of self. These experiences involve confronting uncertainty and embracing unfamiliarity, which fosters autonomy, competence, and relatedness—core tenets of self-determination theory.

In leisure and tourism contexts, adventurous behavior has been linked to stronger emotional outcomes and deeper satisfaction due to the active involvement it requires. Adventure-based tourism, for example, provides opportunities for challenge, unpredictability, and personal mastery, all of which contribute to heightened flow and presence. Translating this into VR, digital environments can simulate quests, open-world exploration, or risky missions—offering users safe spaces to engage in adventure-oriented scenarios that might be physically or economically unattainable in reality.

Recent empirical work underscores this connection. Zhao and Zhang demonstrated that users exposed to exploratory VR scenarios reported significantly greater engagement and perceived control. Furthermore, Lee found that adventurous elements in VR tourism platforms increased intention to revisit and share experiences. These findings align with the notion that adventure in digital formats sustains attention and emotional involvement, particularly in gamified or narrative-driven applications.

From a branding perspective, incorporating adventurous dimensions into VR offerings signals innovation, courage, and dynamism—qualities increasingly aligned with sustainable and experience-centric brands (Hudson & Hudson, 2013) [53]. By enabling users to explore new worlds and push perceived boundaries, adventurous VR content helps to co-create brand meaning while fostering deeper psychological immersion.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 5.

Adventurous experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Live experiences, characterized by immediacy, co-presence, and perceived real-time interaction, are essential for generating authenticity and heightened emotional arousal in mediated environments. Drawing from media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) [54] and telepresence literature, real-time content—whether live-streamed or dynamically responsive—is associated with higher sensory realism and psychological presence. The perception that an experience is unfolding “now”, even in a virtual or simulated space, intensifies emotional involvement and strengthens memory encoding.

In tourism and entertainment, live experiences enhance user engagement by replicating the spontaneity of real-life encounters. Users are more likely to feel present and emotionally connected when events are unscripted or contingent on their own behavior (Dede, 2009) [55]. In VR, this may include live concerts, real-time guided tours, or environments that simulate continuous, responsive interactions with other users or AI agents. Such experiences create what Steuer described as “illusion of non-mediation”, whereby users temporarily suspend disbelief and respond as if the virtual environment was real.

Recent empirical evidence supports these claims. Jung, tom Dieck, and Rauschnabel showed that live elements in VR retail and tourism settings significantly enhance users’ sense of co-presence and involvement. Similarly, Yu found that live-streamed VR experiences lead to stronger brand recall and emotional resonance compared to pre-recorded content. These findings highlight the importance of liveness in elevating both the sensory and affective dimensions of VR.

From a consumer-brand engagement perspective, live VR content also allows brands to create shared, time-sensitive experiences with users, thereby increasing perceived exclusivity and emotional attachment. By enabling synchronous experiences that mirror physical events, brands can foster deeper psychological engagement and co-create value in real time.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 6.

Live experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

The sublime, as a psychological construct, refers to experiences that evoke awe, vastness, and transcendence, often confronting individuals with stimuli beyond their cognitive grasp (Keltner & Haidt, 2003) [56]. Rooted in philosophical aesthetics (Burke, 1757; Kant, 1790) [57,58], the sublime has gained prominence in contemporary media and psychological research as a trigger for self-transcendence and existential reflection. In experiential consumption, sublime encounters—such as witnessing grand natural landscapes or monumental architecture—can momentarily dissolve ego boundaries and provoke elevated emotional states (Bonner & Friedman, 2011) [59]. These effects are particularly salient in transformative travel and spiritual tourism, where feelings of humility and significance emerge simultaneously.

In the realm of VR, the affordances of immersive technology are uniquely suited to simulate the sublime. High-fidelity renderings of vast spaces, natural wonders, or symbolic religious sites can induce a sense of perceptual vastness and existential significance (Chirico and Riva, 2016) [60]. When users navigate through digitally constructed cathedrals, cosmic vistas, or panoramic landscapes, they may experience a shift from self-focus to self-transcendence—a key attribute of the sublime that enhances presence and deepens emotional engagement. These experiences are not merely entertaining but psychologically expansive.

Recent studies have empirically validated the role of sublimity in immersive media. Chirico and Gaggioli found that VR-mediated awe predicts increased well-being, openness to experience, and pro-social intentions. Similarly, Wang, Lee, and Xu demonstrated that exposure to sublime environments in VR can enhance perceived meaning in life and long-term memory retention. These outcomes align with findings in positive psychology, which suggest that awe-evoking experiences contribute to personal growth, reflection, and enduring satisfaction (Yaden et al., 2017) [61].

Moreover, brands leveraging sublime elements in virtual campaigns may benefit from deeper consumer resonance, as users associate the brand with elevated emotional and aesthetic experiences. Thus, from a branding and well-being perspective, the sublime represents a powerful dimension of virtual tourism design.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 7.

Sublime experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Surprise, a fundamental emotional response to unexpected or novel stimuli, plays a pivotal role in enhancing attention, memory, and emotional engagement (Ekman, 1992) [62]. In psychological terms, surprise arises when an event violates one’s expectations, prompting cognitive appraisal and heightened affective processing. In consumer behavior, surprise has been shown to enhance satisfaction, loyalty, and memorability by breaking predictability and creating moments of delight (Tesser, 1988) [63].

From the perspective of experiential marketing and media psychology, incorporating surprise elements into immersive environments significantly strengthens the sense of presence and emotional intensity. These elements may include unexpected visual changes, narrative twists, or interactive outcomes that deviate from user predictions. The unpredictability of these moments fosters deeper cognitive involvement and a sense of discovery, aligning with flow theory’s emphasis on challenge and novelty.

In the context of VR, surprise can be strategically embedded into storylines, environmental interactions, or sensory transitions to simulate unexpected discoveries or emotional turns. For instance, a user might encounter a hidden sacred chamber in a virtual temple or suddenly witness a cultural celebration erupting in a serene village scene—experiences that are not only novel but also emotionally evocative (Tussyadiah et al., 2018) [4]. These instances disrupt routine engagement and generate narrative richness, thereby elevating the user’s overall VRE.

Empirical research further supports this mechanism. Clemens, Perera, and Ranganathan found that surprise increases emotional intensity and post-experience recall in virtual simulations. Likewise, recent work by Choi, Kim, and Lee confirmed that unexpected events in VR environments significantly enhance users’ presence and intention to revisit. Moreover, surprise is known to enhance the sense of agency and interactivity, particularly in gamified or narrative-based VR applications.

Thus, integrating surprise as a deliberate experiential element in virtual tourism design can enrich users’ engagement and lead to more memorable and emotionally charged experiences.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 8.

Surprise experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Once-in-a-lifetime experiences—defined as highly unique, unrepeatable, and deeply personal encounters—represent a powerful form of experiential consumption that contributes to identity formation and autobiographical memory (Pine & Gilmore, 1998) [64]. Such experiences are valued not only for their content but also for their temporal and contextual singularity, often framed as irreplaceable moments that define one’s life narrative. From the perspective of existential psychology, these unique experiences foster meaning-making and self-continuity by anchoring individuals in a broader life story (Steger et al., 2006; Baumeister, 1991) [32,65].

Theoretically, these experiences are situated at the intersection of rarity and self-transcendence, providing both exclusivity and emotional resonance (Frankl, 1984; Belk, 1995) [10,66]. In immersive environments, the replication of once-in-a-lifetime moments—such as witnessing a solar eclipse from Machu Picchu, participating in a royal procession, or experiencing a historical event—can evoke powerful cognitive and affective reactions. Although these events are virtually reconstructed, their one-time framing, personalized interactivity, and emotional scripting can simulate the ephemerality and depth associated with real-world counterparts.

In VR, the subjective perception of a non-replicable moment is reinforced by personalization features (e.g., avatar presence, guided narratives, adaptive content), which create a sense of co-authorship and uniqueness. Users are, thus, less likely to view their experience as generic or mass-produced, and more likely to interpret it as a meaningful chapter within their experiential portfolio (Gretzel & Jamal, 2009) [67]. This aligns with the “experiential CV” framework, where users accumulate and showcase personally meaningful events for social and internal validation.

Empirical support for this proposition is growing. Zhao and Renard found that perceived uniqueness in virtual museum visits significantly predicted user satisfaction and recall. Similarly, Huang, Li, and Liu demonstrated that “only once” framing in VR simulations enhances emotional impact and willingness to share experiences with others. These findings underscore the psychological salience of temporally unique virtual engagements.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 9.

Once-in-a-lifetime experiences positively influence users’ virtual reality experience (VRE).

Hope, defined as a positive motivational state based on an interactively derived sense of successful agency and pathways toward desired goals (Snyder et al., 2000) [68], is widely recognized as a core construct in positive psychology. It plays a crucial role in promoting well-being, resilience, and future-oriented behavior (Lopez et al., 2003; Gallagher & Lopez, 2009) [69,70]. From the perspective of psychological capital theory, hope operates as a resource that enhances individuals’ cognitive flexibility and perseverance in the face of challenges (Luthans et al., 2007) [71].

Virtual reality (VR), by enabling immersive and emotionally rich environments, can act as a fertile medium for fostering hope. Unlike traditional media, VR allows users to not only observe but also actively participate in narrative experiences that simulate goal achievement, personal growth, or transformative journeys (Baños et al., 2012) [72]. These simulations can generate positive expectations and emotional uplift, particularly when the virtual content portrays aspirational futures or overcomes adversity—key ingredients for triggering hopeful cognition (Pleeging et al., 2021) [73].

Theoretically, VR-induced hope aligns with the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001) [74], which posits that positive emotions expand individuals’ thought–action repertoires and build enduring psychological resources. In the context of virtual tourism and brand-related experiences, VR content that evokes awe, mastery, or connection to something greater can spark future-oriented thinking and an enhanced belief in personal agency (Lin et al., 2024) [75]. When users engage with immersive environments that mirror ideal self-states or desirable societal visions (e.g., sustainable cities, inclusive communities), they are more likely to feel motivated and optimistic about the future.

Empirical studies increasingly support this linkage. Riva found that exposure to VR environments designed for self-reflection significantly increased hope and emotional resilience in clinical populations. More recently, Shou demonstrated that VR experiences that portray progress or healing narratives lead to elevated hope scores in both therapeutic and leisure contexts. In branding applications, brands that integrate hopeful storytelling into their VR experiences are perceived as more inspiring and purpose-driven.

Thus, by simulating achievement, visualizing better futures, and providing emotionally impactful content, VREs can cultivate the psychological conditions necessary for hope to emerge and flourish.

Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 10.

Virtual reality experience (VRE) positively influences Hope.

Meaning in life (MiL) is defined as the extent to which individuals comprehend their lives, perceive a sense of purpose, and see their existence as significant within a broader context. It is a foundational element of psychological well-being and existential fulfillment, and its presence has been associated with higher life satisfaction, resilience, and lower rates of depression and anxiety (Park, 2010) [76]. From a eudaimonic well-being perspective, MiL emerges when people engage in experiences that align with their values, foster self-growth, and connect them to something greater than themselves (Ryff & Singer, 1998) [77].

Virtual reality, with its capacity to generate immersive, emotionally resonant, and self-relevant experiences, offers a unique platform for cultivating MiL. VR enables users to explore symbolic narratives, reenact cultural traditions, or experience moments of awe that can stimulate existential reflection and personal insight. In this way, VR functions not only as a technological interface but also as a medium for deep psychological engagement—especially when the content evokes transcendent values such as heroism, heritage, or spirituality.

Theoretically, VR experiences can activate the pathways to MiL via three key mechanisms: coherence (making sense of life events), purpose (pursuing valued goals), and significance (feeling one’s life matters), as outlined by Martela and Steger. Immersive environments designed around meaningful narratives or challenges can help users reflect on identity, relationships, and moral values—processes linked to higher MiL. For instance, a virtual journey through a sacred pilgrimage site or a historically significant event can elicit contemplation about one’s role in a cultural or moral continuum.

Empirical findings increasingly support this proposition. Baños demonstrated that VR-based storytelling can enhance users’ sense of MiL by evoking emotionally moving narratives. More recently, Lin found that VR experiences that induce awe and wonder—such as viewing Earth from space or interacting with historical reenactments—can elevate individuals’ perceptions of significance and long-term purpose. In tourism and branding, immersive experiences that connect users with sustainability themes or global cultures have also been found to stimulate reflective thought and a sense of legacy.

Thus, by transporting users into evocative virtual scenarios that align with their core values and aspirations, VREs can meaningfully contribute to users’ sense of MiL.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 11.

Virtual reality experience (VRE) positively influences users’ Meaning in Life (MIL).

Well-being (WB), often conceptualized through both hedonic and eudaimonic lenses, refers to individuals’ overall evaluation of their life in terms of positive affect, life satisfaction, and psychological functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Diener et al., 1985) [78,79]. Within the positive psychology framework, WB is not only the presence of pleasurable experiences but also the realization of personal growth, purpose, and social connectedness (Seligman, 2011) [80]. In digital and mediated contexts, the capacity of a medium to evoke relaxation, pleasure, and self-transcendence is increasingly recognized as a contributor to subjective well-being (Riva et al., 2016; Wiederhold et al., 2020) [60,81].

Virtual reality—due to its immersive, interactive, and emotionally rich affordances—offers a compelling platform for fostering well-being. VR enables users to engage with safe, controlled environments that simulate positive social interactions, breathtaking landscapes, and emotionally restorative activities. According to the media richness theory and flow theory, users immersed in high-fidelity, engaging environments are more likely to experience relaxation, focus, and emotional uplift. These affective responses have been shown to directly enhance subjective well-being.

In the context of tourism and branding, virtual experiences allow individuals to “travel” without physical constraints, enabling access to restorative nature scenes or culturally enriching content. Such virtual journeys provide similar psychological benefits to actual travel—such as escapism, novelty, and reflection—while eliminating stressors related to cost, time, or mobility. Moreover, immersive VR experiences can deliver tailored interventions aimed at reducing stress and enhancing mood, a strategy increasingly adopted in clinical and organizational settings (Seabrook et al., 2020) [82].

Recent empirical evidence supports this linkage. Riva found that VR applications designed to simulate awe, relaxation, or mastery significantly increased users’ well-being levels compared to non-immersive media. Lin showed that 360° immersive storytelling elicited greater happiness, self-acceptance, and vitality among participants. In branding contexts, VR-enhanced campaigns promoting sustainable values have also been associated with increased consumer emotional satisfaction and identity reinforcement.

Given these insights, it is reasonable to conclude that VREs can positively impact WB by offering emotionally satisfying, cognitively engaging, and personally meaningful experiences that mirror real-world benefits.

Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Hypothesis 12.

Virtual reality experience (VRE) positively influences users’ well-being (WB).

4. Relationships Between Future Hope, MiF and WB

Hope, as defined by Snyder, is a cognitive–motivational construct comprising goal-directed energy (agency) and the perceived capacity to develop pathways toward those goals. Rooted in positive psychology and existential theories, hope is seen as a central psychological strength that enables individuals to navigate uncertainty, envision a purposeful future, and overcome adversity (Snyder, 2002; Scioli et al., 2011) [83,84]. From a theoretical standpoint, hope contributes to the construction of meaning in life (MIL) by orienting individuals toward purposeful action and imbuing experiences with significance (Frankl, 1963; Feldman & Snyder, 2005) [85,86].

MIL refers to the degree to which individuals perceive their lives as having purpose, coherence, and significance. According to the meaning-making model, people derive meaning from life through cognitive–emotional processes that link personal goals with their experiences. Hope, by providing the motivational architecture for goal pursuit, serves as a cognitive–emotional foundation for constructing and sustaining meaning. Individuals with higher levels of hope are more likely to perceive their lives as meaningful because they anticipate a positive future and are confident in their ability to influence outcomes (Snyder, 2002; Ward & King, 2019) [83,87].

Empirical research affirms this connection. Studies by Yalçın and Malkoç (2015) [88] and Mascaro and Rosen demonstrated that hope significantly predicts MIL across diverse populations, including students and adults facing existential challenges. Furthermore, in virtual environments, hope induced by immersive experiences can amplify the salience of life purpose by allowing individuals to explore values, envision future goals, and simulate meaningful outcomes.

Recent studies also suggest that technologically mediated experiences—especially those involving narrative, emotional resonance, and future simulation—can enhance hope and, subsequently, life meaning. In VR, participants may be transported into inspiring settings, historical narratives, or future scenarios that reinforce personal values and aspirations. This aligns with existential psychology’s assertion that confronting expansive, emotionally intense experiences can deepen one’s sense of meaning.

In summary, hope functions as both a precursor and a psychological mechanism through which individuals derive MIL. When hope is fostered—particularly through immersive and emotionally charged virtual experiences—it enhances a person’s capacity to find coherence and purpose in life.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 13.

Hope positively influences users’ Meaning in Life (MIL).

Hope has long been recognized as a foundational construct in the field of positive psychology, playing a vital role in enhancing individuals’ overall well-being. Defined as a goal-directed cognitive framework involving both motivation (agency) and strategy (pathways), hope provides individuals with the psychological resources to cope with challenges, pursue aspirations, and maintain optimism in the face of uncertainty. This motivational orientation toward future possibilities is central to the development of subjective well-being, which encompasses life satisfaction, positive affect, and the absence of distress.

The theoretical linkage between hope and well-being can be explained through self-determination theory, which posits that individuals thrive when they experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Hope facilitates all three dimensions by enabling individuals to set personally meaningful goals, believe in their ability to achieve them, and engage with their environment in constructive ways. Furthermore, hope supports emotional regulation, cognitive flexibility, and resilience, all of which are essential components of psychological well-being.

Empirical studies have consistently validated this relationship. For instance, Snyder et al. (1996) [89] demonstrated that individuals with high hope report greater life satisfaction and lower levels of anxiety and depression. More recently, Pleeging and Ong found that hope significantly predicts well-being outcomes across both general and clinical populations, suggesting its robust impact across contexts.

In the digital age, immersive technologies such as VR are uniquely positioned to cultivate hope by simulating desirable futures, visualizing goal achievement, and creating emotionally uplifting experiences. VR interventions have been shown to increase positive emotions and reduce stress, thereby contributing to improved well-being. Through carefully designed narrative structures and environments, VR can activate hopeful cognition and encourage users to reflect on their own goals and agency.

Recent studies further highlight the affective benefits of VR-based hope induction. Lin demonstrated that VR scenarios fostering awe and inspiration can enhance both future-oriented thinking and emotional stability, while Zhang showed that goal-visualization VR apps significantly improve mood and self-efficacy. These findings suggest that hope, when elicited through engaging virtual experiences, can serve as a psychological bridge toward greater well-being.

Accordingly, this study posits that individuals who experience increased hope through virtual reality are more likely to report heightened psychological well-being.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 14.

Hope positively influences users’ well-being (WB).

Mediators serve as psychological mechanisms through which an independent variable influences an outcome (Baron & Kenny, 1986) [90]. In the context of immersive experiences, hope has emerged as a potent mediator that channels the emotional and cognitive effects of virtual environments into lasting psychological outcomes such as meaning in life and well-being. This mediating role is especially relevant when the experience itself is forward-looking or transformational in nature.

Theoretical foundations for this mediation stem from hope theory (Snyder et al., 2000) [68], which conceptualizes hope as both a motivational driver and a cognitive–emotional construct. Hope enables individuals to formulate goals, strategize pathways, and maintain emotional resilience, making it a conduit between immersive stimuli and sustained psychological benefits (Snyder, 2002) [83]. Within self-determination theory, hope further satisfies the innate need for competence and purpose—two dimensions closely linked with both life meaning and well-being.

Virtual reality experience (VRE), with its immersive and emotionally evocative nature, has shown strong potential to generate hope. By allowing users to simulate ideal futures, relive aspirational narratives, or visualize meaningful accomplishments, VR environments can catalyze hopeful thinking. These environments create psychologically safe spaces where individuals reflect on their goals, envision possibilities, and emotionally commit to desired outcomes—all of which are critical antecedents of life meaning and subjective well-being.

Recent empirical studies support this pathway. For example, Pleeging found that hope acts as a mediator between future-oriented digital interventions and life satisfaction. Similarly, Zhao and Renard confirmed that digital storytelling and immersive simulations elevate perceived hope, which subsequently increases users’ sense of purpose and psychological health. In VR tourism, simulated experiences of awe and accomplishment have been shown to indirectly influence life meaning and well-being through increased future orientation and agency (Zhang & Xiao, 2024) [6].

Applying this to the present research, VRE is hypothesized to affect MiL and WB not only directly but also indirectly through hope. That is, engaging in virtual collectable experiences generates emotional uplift and motivational clarity (Liu et al.), which in turn fosters greater meaning and well-being outcomes.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 15.

Hope mediates the relationship between VRE and users’ Meaning in Life (MIL) and Well-being (WB). Meaning in Life positively influences Well-being.

5. Moderator

Adventurer Traits (AT) and Frequency of Traveling (FT)

Traveler frequency, referring to how often individuals engage in physical travel, plays a critical moderating role in shaping how users perceive and respond to virtual experiences. This moderating mechanism can be explained through the lens of novelty-seeking theory (Hirschman, 1980) [91] and habituation theory, which suggest that repeated exposure to similar stimuli reduces psychological arousal and perceived uniqueness. Frequent travelers, by virtue of their richer bank of real-world experiences, may perceive digitally mediated collectible experiences as less novel or less emotionally resonant.

From the experiential consumption perspective, individuals who travel often develop higher thresholds for what constitutes a meaningful or immersive encounter (Kozak, 2002) [92]. Their internal standards are shaped by firsthand exposure to exotic environments, spontaneous cultural interactions, and unfiltered sensory input, making virtual recreations appear less authentic or impactful. Consequently, the emotional engagement and immersive quality of VR—particularly in collectible experiences such as simulated sacred sites or cultural festivals—may elicit weaker psychological responses among this group compared to those with less travel exposure.

Recent empirical studies support this moderation effect. Masmitja found that frequent travelers reported lower engagement with VR tourism apps due to reduced novelty perception. Similarly, Zhao and Renard observed that individuals with extensive travel histories showed diminished affective responses to virtual tour content, indicating a possible saturation point. In contrast, novice or infrequent travelers were more receptive to the symbolic and emotional value of such virtual engagements.

In our context, collectible experiences—defined by dimensions such as rarity, exoticism, and sublimity—are designed to evoke awe, uniqueness, and emotional resonance. However, for frequent travelers, these elements may fail to surpass the novelty and depth of their lived experiences, thereby weakening their influence on overall virtual reality experience (VRE). This attenuation may be further amplified in digital environments where sensory cues are constrained by technological limitations.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 16.

Traveler Frequency negatively moderates the relationship between Collectible Experience and VRE.

Adventurer Traits—a subdimension of personality associated with openness to experience, risk-taking, and exploration—play a pivotal role in shaping how users perceive and engage with novel digital environments (Zuckerman, 1994; McCrae & Costa, 1997) [50,93]. Drawing from personality–congruence theory (Hirsh, Kang, & Bodenhausen, 2012) [94], individuals are more likely to respond positively to environments and stimuli that align with their intrinsic dispositions. Thus, people who exhibit high levels of adventurousness are predisposed to embrace immersive technologies and the uncertainty embedded in collectible experiences.

In the realm of virtual tourism, collectible experiences—such as rare destinations, culturally unfamiliar rituals, and awe-inspiring scenes—are inherently aligned with the desires of adventurous individuals who seek novelty and psychological stimulation (Neuhofer et al., 2015) [95]. These users are more likely to perceive virtual experiences as opportunities for vicarious exploration, identity expansion, and experiential achievement, which enhances their sense of presence and emotional engagement.

Several studies support this moderating relationship. Masmitja demonstrated that individuals scoring high on adventure-seeking scales reported significantly greater satisfaction with VR content featuring cultural or physical challenges. Similarly, Jung, tom Dieck, Lee, and Chung found that trait-level adventurousness predicted users’ willingness to engage with and revisit VR-based tourism platforms. These findings align with self-determination theory, which posits that fulfilling innate psychological needs such as competence and autonomy enhances motivation and affective responses.

In our study context, collectible experiences presented in VR—whether extreme, sublime, or exotic—serve as cognitive and emotional challenges that resonate strongly with those possessing high adventurer traits. This congruence between personality and experiential design strengthens the relationship between collectible experience dimensions and virtual reality experience (VRE), enhancing immersion, enjoyment, and perceived authenticity.

Therefore, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 17.

Adventurer Traits positively moderate the relationship between Collectible Experience and VRE.

6. Methods

This research examines the impact of virtual experiences on well-being and MiL (see Figure 1) through three experimental studies, focusing on two types of virtual experiences: VR as a tool for sustainable corporate branding and Virtual Virtuality (VV). Virtual Virtuality (VV) is defined as digitally reconstructed visual and narrative experiences that simulate real-life cultural scenes using traditional media technologies, such as animations or panoramic images. Study 1 explores the effects of VRE on well-being and MiL using the VR presentation of “Journey to the Cross”. VRE refers to the user’s psychological perception of immersion, interactivity, and realism while engaging with virtual tourism content. Participants were exposed to this historical and religious VR journey, and its impact on their psychological states was assessed. Study 2 investigates the influence of VV experiences using “Along the River During the Qingming Festival”, a completely virtual depiction of a famous Chinese painting. This study examines how fully virtual environments affect users compared to traditional VRE. Study 3 replicates and extends the findings of the first two studies using the same VV material from Study 2 but in a different cultural context to ensure the generalizability of the results. This study also examines the moderating roles of Traveler Frequency and Adventurer Traits in shaping the virtual experience. Together, these studies provide a comprehensive understanding of how different types of virtual experiences can enhance well-being and MiL, while also considering the influence of individual differences.

7. Study 1

The measurement items for Collectable Experience were adapted from the original conceptual framework proposed by Belk, as cited and operationalized in Keinan and Kivetz, particularly in their discussion of dimensions such as rarity, exoticism, and adventurousness. Items for well-being were based on validated constructs from Ryff’s psychological well-being scale, and meaning in life was assessed using items derived from the scale developed by Steger. To ensure conceptual consistency, all items were translated, back-translated, and reviewed by bilingual experts.

This study investigates the impact of VR on collectible experiences using the historical and religious context of “Via Dolorosa”. The study aims to understand how VR can enhance users’ engagement and perception of collectible experiences, leveraging the historical significance of the Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem, a well-known pilgrimage and tourist site. The research focuses on the effectiveness of naked-eye VR, utilizing mobile phones or computer equipment, to overcome traditional VR limitations. The experiment was conducted using YouTube, a major worldwide video platform, with the VR video “Via Dolorosa”.

The selected material for this experiment was “Via Dolorosa”, chosen for its profound historical and cultural significance. The Via Dolorosa, a street in Jerusalem, holds great importance in Christian tradition as the path Jesus walked on his way to crucifixion. The VR content was delivered through Bilibili, leveraging its wide reach and accessibility. Naked-eye VR was chosen for its practical advantages over traditional VR systems.

Sample 1

The first sample comprised 116 Taiwanese university students, predominantly female (68.97%), aged mostly between 18 and 29 years (76.72%), with a significant portion holding a master’s degree (48.28%) (see

Table 1. Characteristics of participants.

Attributes	Levels	S1,3 (n)	S1,3 (%)	S2,4 (n)	S2,4 (%)	S5 (n)	S5 (%)
Total		116.00	100.00	105	100.00	117	100.00
Gender	Male	36.00	31.03	52	49.52	76	64.96
	Female	80.00	68.97	53	50.48	41	35.04
Age	Under 18	13.00	11.21	2	1.90	0	0.00
	Include 18 to 29	89.00	76.72	27	25.71	88	75.21
	Include 30 to 39	11.00	9.48	33	31.43	17	14.53
	Include 40 to 49	0.00	0.00	25	23.81	6	5.13
	Include 50 to 59	3.00	2.59	13	12.38	6	5.13
	Include 60 and above	0.00	0.00	5	4.76	0	0.00
Education	High school or below	18.00	15.52	27	25.71	0	0.00
	Bachelor’s	37.00	31.90	49	46.67	82	70.09
	Master’s	56.00	48.28	27	25.71	22	18.80
	Doctor’s or above	5.00	4.31	2	1.90	13	11.11
Occupation	Traditional manufacturing	1.00	0.86	4	3.81	2	1.71
	Mass media	4.00	3.45	3	2.86	4	3.42
	Electronic information, internet, network, Hardware, software	8.00	6.90	14	13.33	28	23.93
	Legal, accounting	1.00	0.86	5	4.76	6	5.13
	Service industry	10.00	8.62	5	4.76	0	0.00
	Financial insurance	4.00	3.45	13	12.38	4	3.42
	Military, civil servants, education, admin	5.00	4.31	10	9.52	18	15.38
	Travel and leisure	3.00	2.59	1	0.95	2	1.71
	Wholesale and retail	1.00	0.86	4	3.81	6	5.13
	Students	71.00	61.21	6	5.71	18	15.38
	Logistics and warehousing	2.00	1.72	4	3.81	2	1.71
	Medical and environmental protection, Life sciene, psychology	1.00	0.86	9	8.57	4	3.42
	Freelancing	1.00	0.86	12	11.43	0	0.00
	Design	2.00	1.72	0	0.00	1	0.85
	Construction and civil engineering	0	0	5	4.76	0	0
	Marketing	1.00	0.86	0	0.00	0	0.00
	Housekeeping	0	0	4	3.81	0	0
	Non Profit	0	0	1	0.95	0	0.00
	Real Estate	0	0	2	1.90	8	6.84
	Retired	0	0	1	0.95		0.00
	Fast selling products (food/beverage/cosmetics)	0	0	0	0	2	1.71
	Trade/Import/Export	0	0	0	0	4	3.42
	Intermediary/Consulting/Headhunting/Certification	0	0	0	0	2	1.71
	Aerospace/Aviation/Energy/Chemical	0	0	0	0	1	0.85
	Other(Unknow)	1.00	0.86	2	1.90	5	4.27

Note: S1 refers to study 1 sample 1, S2 refers to study 1 sample 2, S3 refers to study 2 sample 1, S4 refers to study 2 sample 2. Alt Text: “Table 2 displays the demographic characteristics of participants across four samples, identified as S1, S2, S3, and S4. The table includes categories such as gender, age, education level, and occupation. Percentages and counts are provided for each category within the different samples, showing the distribution of participants by these demographic factors”.

). These students engaged with a VRE of the “Via Dolorosa” journey (see Figure 2), after which they completed questionnaires assessing nine dimensions of collectible experiences: Rarity, Exotic, Variety, Extreme, Adventurous, Live, Sublime, Surprise, and Once. Factor loadings for these dimensions were as follows: Rarity ranged from 0.474 to 0.579, Exotic from 0.755 to 0.844, Variety from 0.851 to 0.893, Extreme from 0.688 to 0.823, Adventurous from 0.657 to 0.750, Live from 0.895 to 0.878, Sublime from 0.883 to 0.822, Surprise from 0.887 to 0.860, and Once from 0.755 to 0.851 (see

Table 2. Scale items and measurement reliability.

Construct (Factor Loading)	Items	CA	CR	AVE
Rarity S1 = 0.500 S2 = 0.408 S3 = 0.560 S4 = 0.579 S5 = 0.402	Requires specific tools for shooting or viewing	S1 = 0.744 S2 = 0.681 S3 = 0.796 S4 = 0.778 S5 = 0.801	S1 = 0.757 S2 = 0.665 S3 = 0.804 S4 = 0.762 S5 = 0.806	S1 = 0.408 S2 = 0.316 S3 = 0.455 S4 = 0.423 S5 = 0.409
	Need to be photographed or viewed at a specific time
	Need to be photographed or viewed in a specific location
	Not permanently viewable (the resource does not always exist)
	Not everyone has the financial means to use specialized equipment to film or watch
Exotic S1 = 0.755 S2 = 0.764 S3 = 0.802 S4 = 0.882 S5 = 0.844	Make you feel like you are in a very strange place (like a foreign country with a different culture)	S1 = 0.807 S2 = 0.727 S3 = 0.860 S4 = 0.872 S5 = 0.827	S1 = 0.818 S2 = 0.764 S3 = 0.867 S4 = 0.883 S5 = 0.848	S1 = 0.476 S2 = 0.410 S3 = 0.568 S4 = 0.599 S5 = 0.531
	Let you enjoy unique food (such as foreign food from different cultures)
	See unique resorts (such as foreign attractions with different cultures)
	Feeling like experiencing things in a non-traditional way (traditional such as going to a scene in person or watching a regular movie)
	Unusual celebrations can be held (with special technology to present the scene)
Variety S1 = 0.851 S2 = 0.813 S3 = 0.831 S4 = 0.893 S5 = 0.791	Have the opportunity to experience a variety of people, places, places and people	S1 = 0.912 S2 = 0.931 S3 = 0.900 S4 = 0.937 S5 = 0.931	S1 = 0.913 S2 = 0.933 S3 = 0.902 S4 = 0.938 S5 = 0.932	S1 = 0.678 S2 = 0.736 S3 = 0.652 S4 = 0.751 S5 = 0.735
	Opportunities to accumulate learning and life experience
	Opportunities to accumulate diverse and rich learning and life experiences
	Opportunity to visit states (counties, cities and provinces)
	Opportunity to visit various countries
Extreme S1 = 0.688 S2 = 0.807 S3 = 0.693 S4 = 0.813 S5 = 0.823	There are things or areas that are larger or smaller than the normal perspective (for example, in a video, you can use your finger to zoom in on specific things)	S1 = 0.817 S2 = 0.840 S3 = 0.819 S4 = 0.889 S5 = 0.907	S1 = 0.828 S2 = 0.845 S3 = 0.829 S4 = 0.895 S5 = 0.911	S1 = 0.506 S2 = 0.524 S3 = 0.523 S4 = 0.633 S5 = 0.671
	Have some exciting sports experiences
	Have some exciting weather experiences
	Have some exciting food appreciation experiences
	Have some emotional experiences with mood swings
Adventurous S1 = 0.657 S2 = 0.818 S3 = 0.799 S4 = 0.778	Allow yourself to learn technical skills that may be used to demonstrate excellence	S1 = 0.869 S2 = 0.911 S3 = 0.910 S4 = 0.932	S1 = 0.873 S2 = 0.914 S3 = 0.912 S4 = 0.933	S1 = 0.578 S2 = 0.682 S3 = 0.675 S4 = 0.735
	Let yourself learn or use it to demonstrate your superb talents
	Goals that help you overcome some difficulties in the future Help yourself achieve goals in the future that may otherwise seem impossible
S5 = 0.750	Help yourself to overcome some limitations and take risks (such as lack of money or traveling to dangerous places)	S5 = 0.909	S5 = 0.912	S5 = 0.676
Live S1 = 0.895 S2 = 0.906 S3 = 0.807 S4 = 0.874 S5 = 0.878	Feel like being there in person	S1 = 0.910 S2 = 0.886 S3 = 0.904 S4 = 0.894 S5 = 0.943	S1 = 0.910 S2 = 0.887 S3 = 0.904 S4 = 0.893 S5 = 0.945	S1 = 0.669 S2 = 0.613 S3 = 0.654 S4 = 0.627 S5 = 0.776
	Feeling that people and things are real
	Vivid sensory experiences (such as hearing and seeing)
	The simulated people and things are very realistic
	High degree of restoration of people and things
Sublime S1 = 0.883 S2 = 0.840 S3 = 0.948 S4 = 0.884 S5 = 0.822	You can have lofty experiences that transcend routine (such as the feeling of being closer to reaching those unattainable goals)	S1 = 0.919 S2 = 0.916 S3 = 0.869 S4 = 0.922 S5 = 0.933	S1 = 0.924 S2 = 0.916 S3 = 0.870 S4 = 0.923 S5 = 0.937	S1 = 0.708 S2 = 0.685 S3 = 0.573 S4 = 0.707 S5 = 0.748
	You can visit historical sites and meet famous people
	Can participate in important events (such as in-person celebrations that cannot be reached)
	Spectacular scenery to enjoy
	Enjoy great art performances
Surprise S1 = 0.887 S2 = 0.758 S3 = 0.789 S4 = 0.840 S5 = 0.860	Have an unexpected feeling	S1 = 0.948 S2 = 0.875 S3 = 0.963 S4 = 0.931 S5 = 0.963	S1 = 0.949 S2 = 0.877 S3 = 0.963 S4 = 0.932 S5 = 0.964	S1 = 0.788 S2 = 0.590 S3 = 0.840 S4 = 0.732 S5 = 0.842
	There is an unexpected feeling
	there are surprising things
	There is an unexpected gain
	It is a surprise
Once S1 = 0.755 S2 = 0.678 S3 = 0.795 S4 = 0.684 S5 = 0.851	Every video content is unique	S1 = 0.877 S2 = 0.868 S3 = 0.919 S4 = 0.917 S5 = 0.941	S1 = 0.885 S2 = 0.871 S3 = 0.923 S4 = 0.918 S5 = 0.942	S1 = 0.606 S2 = 0.575 S3 = 0.707 S4 = 0.694 S5 = 0.766
	Watching videos with other content will give you a different experience
	Rather than watching the same video, I want to experience different videos again
	Compared with watching the same movie, watching different movies can enhance your own value.
	Compared with watching the same movie, watching different movies brings different meanings
Virtual reality experience S1 = 0.854 S2 = 0.746 S3 = 0.847 S4 = 0.790 S5 = 0.826	There are people and things simulated on site	S1 = 0.930 S2 = 0.860 S3 = 0.926 S4 = 0.892 S5 = 0.919	S1 = 0.931 S2 = 0.867 S3 = 0.927 S4 = 0.893 S5 = 0.911	S1 = 0.731 S2 = 0.575 S3 = 0.719 S4 = 0.628 S5 = 0.677
	I feel that the perspective of the picture will change freely with your control
	Feeling three-dimensional
	There is a feeling of being immersed in the movie
	It feels like I’m in another place
Future Hope S1 = 0.876 S2 = 0.824 S3 = 0.865 S4 = 0.845 S5 = 0.872	Give me a strong desire to achieve certain goals	S1 = 0.943 S2 = 0.916 S3 = 0.938 S4 = 0.926 S5 = 0.943	S1 = 0.943 S2 = 0.915 S3 = 0.937 S4 = 0.927 S5 = 0.943	S1 = 0.768 S2 = 0.684 S3 = 0.750 S4 = 0.717 S5 = 0.770
	Give me hope that the future will be positive
	the desire to have something desired
	Believe that our imagination is possible
	Even when faced with obstacles, we have the opportunity to discover different pathways or behaviors to realize our ideas
Meaning in life S1 = 0.862 S2 = 0.795 S3 = 0.844 S4 = 0.834 S5 = 0.888	It can help me share and communicate with others in my life now or after watching the video.	S1 = 0.935 S2 = 0.892 S3 = 0.924 S4 = 0.919 S5 = 0.948	S1 = 0.936 S2 = 0.897 S3 = 0.926 S4 = 0.920 S5 = 0.949	S1 = 0.745 S2 = 0.636 S3 = 0.714 S4 = 0.696 S5 = 0.789
	Can promote physical activity in my life (such as going out) at the moment or after watching the video
	It allows me to expand my knowledge and skills and broaden my horizons
	Can enhance some sense of self-worth and satisfaction
	It can help me pay more attention to the world around me and actively think about problems from different perspectives.
Well-being S1 = 0.824 S2 = 0.778 S3 = 0.814 S4 = 0.857 S5 = 0.883	Bring happiness and satisfaction	S1 = 0.912	S1 = 0.920	S1 = 0.697
	You can experience spending time with people, enjoying food and reading things	S2 = 0.884 S3 = 0.908 S4 = 0.931 S5 = 0.944	S2 = 0.886 S3 = 0.909 S4 = 0.933 S5 = 0.947	S2 = 0.610 S3 = 0.669 S4 = 0.735 S5 = 0.781
	Can experience daily activities
	You can experience travel adventures, participate in special festivals and events, and challenge your personal limits
	Experience exciting and unforgettable things
Frequency S1 = 0.508 S2 = 0.862 S3 = 0.635 S4 = 0.862 S5 = 0.699	M2I (Pre COVID, Frequency of Domestic Travel per year) M2O (Pre COVID, Frequency of Overseas Travel per year) P2I (Post COVID, Frequency of Domestic Travel per year) P2O (Post COVID, Frequency of Overseas Travel per year)	S1 = 0.747 S2 = 0.658 S3 = 0.747 S4 = 0.658 S5 = 0.792	S1 = 0.744 S2 = 1.923 S3 = 0.744 S4 = 1.923 S5 = 0.793	S1 = 0.445 S2 = 2.341 S3 = 0.445 S4 = 2.341 S5 = 0.491
Traits S1 = 0.716 S2 = −0.056 S3 = 0.716 S4 = −0.056 S5 = 0.131	BFO1 (Big Five Openness to Experience Question1) BFO2 (Big Five Openness to Experience Question2)	S1 = 0.594 S2 = 0.169 S3 = 0.594 S4 = 0.169 S5 = 0.634	S1 = 0.597 S2 = 0.038 S3 = 0.712 S4 = 0.011 S5 = 0.035	S1 = 0.427 S2 = 0.021 S3 = 0.589 S4 = 0.005 S5 = 0.018

Note: S1 refers to study 1 sample 1, S2 refers to study 1 sample 2, S3 refers to study 2 sample 1, S4 refers to study 2 sample 2. Alt Text: “Table 1 presents the scale items used in the study along with the measurement reliability statistics for each item. The table includes four different samples labeled as S1, S2, S3, and S4, which refer to different groups from Study 1 and Study 2. Reliability metrics such as Cronbach’s alpha are reported to assess the internal consistency of the scales used across the different samples”.

). These results indicate that students highly valued diverse and unique experiences, particularly those that are exotic or offer variety.

In terms of mediation, the analysis revealed that the direct effect of VRE on meaning in life (MIL) was significant (Estimate = 0.887, p < 0.001), but the indirect effect through hope (H) was not significant, indicating that while VRE directly enhanced students’ sense of life meaning, Hope did not significantly mediate this relationship. Conversely, for well-being (WB), both the direct effect of VRE (Estimate = 0.285, p < 0.001) and the indirect effect through Hope (Estimate = 0.584, p < 0.001) were significant, suggesting that hope plays a crucial role in translating VRE into enhanced well-being (see

Table 3. Mediation Table.

Study	Path			Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	p	95% CI	Conclusion
S1 (MIL)	H	<---	VRE	0.922	0.107	8.588	***	[0.607, 0.853]	Significant
	MIL (Direct Effect)	<---	VRE	0.887	0.101	8.772	***	[0.625, 0.972]	Significant
	MIL	<---	H	0.149	0.063	2.376	0.018	[−0.024, 0.383]	Not Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.882, 1.198]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[−0.006, 0.342]	Not Significant
S1 (WB)	H	<---	VRE	0.924	0.108	8.565	***	[0.607, 0.853]	Significant
	WB	<---	VRE	0.285	0.082	3.482	***	[0.065, 0.493]	Significant
	WB	<---	H	0.584	0.079	7.442	***	[0.499, 0.888]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.643, 1.027]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.320, 0.803]	Significant
S2 (MIL)	H	<---	VRE	1.149	0.249	4.62	***	[0.513, 0.822]	Significant
	MIL	<---	VRE	1.189	0.251	4.745	***	[0.592, 0.964]	Significant
	MIL	<---	H	0.142	0.081	1.749	0.08	[−0.051, 0.356]	Not Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[1.020, 2.087]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[−0.056, 0.397]	Not Significant
S2 (WB)	H	<---	VRE	1.132	0.236	4.797	***	[0.515, 0.823]	Significant
	WB	<---	VRE	0.416	0.153	2.713	0.007	[0.028, 0.512]	Significant
	WB	<---	H	0.606	0.093	6.529	***	[0.438, 0.905]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.789, 1.684]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.395, 1.236]	Significant
S3 (MIL)	H	<---	VRE	0.917	0.132	6.958	***	[0.516, 0.763]	Significant
	MIL	<---	VRE	0.43	0.089	4.815	***	[0.212, 0.540]	Significant
	MIL	<---	H	0.515	0.07	7.35	***	[0.478, 0.754]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.649, 1.148]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.330, 0.671]	Significant
S3 (WB)	H	<---	VRE	0.925	0.134	6.893	***	[0.512, 0.759]	Significant
	WB	<---	VRE	0.165	0.097	1.703	0.089	[−0.061, 0.304]	Not Significant
	WB	<---	H	0.749	0.092	8.17	***	[0.670, 0.950]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.645, 1.210]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.445, 1.038]	Significant
S4 (MIL)	H	<---	VRE	1.012	0.165	6.129	***	[0.517, 0.850]	Significant
	MIL	<---	VRE	0.665	0.114	5.809	***	[0.337, 0.736]	Significant
	MIL	<---	H	0.427	0.068	6.227	***	[0.302, 0.708]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.771, 1.505]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.278, 0.726]	Significant
S4 (WB)	H	<---	VRE	1.017	0.164	6.188	***	[0.506, 0.847]	Significant
	WB	<---	VRE	0.276	0.119	2.32	0.02	[−0.019, 0.421]	Not Significant
	WB	<---	H	0.806	0.1	8.046	***	[0.578, 0.969]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.762, 1.520]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.531, 1.391]	Significant
S5 (MIL)	H	<---	VRE	0.963	0.095	10.133	***	[0.720, 0.938]	Significant
	MIL	<---	VRE	0.478	0.128	3.727	***	[−0.021, 0.849]	Not Significant
	MIL	<---	H	0.476	0.114	4.185	***	[0.041, 0.928]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.734, 1.129]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.069, 0.989]	Significant
S5 (WB)	H	<---	VRE	0.971	0.095	10.227	***	[0.728, 0.934]	Significant
	WB	<---	VRE	0.411	0.132	3.117	0.002	[0.006, 0.716]	Significant
	WB	<---	H	0.644	0.12	5.348	***	[0.217, 0.902]	Significant
	X → Y (Total Effect)							[0.855, 1.269]	Significant
	Indirect Effect (X → M → Y)							[0.207, 1.047]	Significant

Alt Text: “Table 3 presents the results of mediation analyses, detailing the indirect effects between independent variables and dependent variables through one or more mediators. The table includes coefficients, standard errors, confidence intervals, and significance levels for each mediation path examined”. Note: <--- indicates the direction of the causal relationship in the path model. For example, H <--- VRE means that VRE predicts H. *** indicates p < 0.001. → denotes the direction of effect in the mediation model (e.g., X → Y indicates the effect of X on Y).

). The moderation analysis indicated that Traveler Frequency (FT) negatively moderated the relationship between collectable experience (CE) and VRE (Estimate = −0.156, p = 0.004), though the interaction term was not significant, implying that frequent travelers might find diminishing novelty in VR. Adventurer Traits (AT) did not significantly moderate the CE to VRE relationship, as shown by the non-significant interaction term (Estimate = −0.024, p = 0.082) (see

Table 4. Moderator Table.

Study	Variable			Estimate	S.E.	C.R.	p	95% CI	Conclusion
S1 (FT)	VRE	<---	CE	2.212	0.403	5.488	***	[0.847, 0.995]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.156	0.055	−2.844	0.004	[−0.260, −0.30]	Negative Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXFTM	0.009	0.019	0.493	0.622	[−0.138, 0.236]	Not Significant
S1 (AT)	VRE	<---	CE	2.582	0.505	5.109	***	[0.871, 1.230]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.048	0.065	−0.746	0.456	[−0.152, −0.74]	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXATM	−0.024	0.014	−1.742	0.082	[−0.340, 0.044]	Not Significant
S2 (FT)	VRE	<---	CE	2.006	0.477	4.207	***	[1.169, 4.220]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.195	0.087	−2.243	0.025	[−0.438, −0.089]	Negative Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXFTM	0.052	0.029	1.776	0.076	[−0.003, 0.120]	Not Significant
S2 (AT)	VRE	<---	CE	2.648	0.725	3.653	***	-	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	0.131	0.088	1.486	0.137	-	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXATM	−0.022	0.028	−0.763	0.445	-	Not Significant
S3 (FT)	VRE	<---	CE	1.671	0.262	6.381	***	[0.856, 1.081]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	0.079	0.071	1.122	0.262	[−0.044, 0.283]	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXFTM	−0.063	0.024	−2.597	0.009	[−0.526, −0.41]	Negative Significant
S3 (AT)	VRE	<---	CE	1.426	0.275	5.192	***	[0.516, 0.978]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.156	0.074	−2.112	0.035	[−0.259, 0.010]	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXATM	0.012	0.016	0.79	0.43	[−0.086, 0.345]	Not Significant
S4 (FT)	VRE	<---	CE	1.33	0.245	5.419	***	[0.652, 0.998]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.247	0.089	−2.772	0.006	[−0.302, −0.035]	Negative Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXFTM	0.031	0.031	1.014	0.311	[−0.121, 0.377]	Not Significant
S4 (AT)	VRE	<---	CE	1.521	0.313	4.867	***	-	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	0.004	0.077	0.053	0.958	-	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXATM	−0.007	0.022	−0.318	0.751	-	Not Significant
S5 (FT)	VRE	<---	CE	1.998	0.422	4.736	***	[0.643, 0.977]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.385	0.116	−3.324	***	[−0.381, −0.015]	Negative Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXFTM	0.04	0.025	1.614	0.106	[−0.150, 0.437]	Not Significant
S5 (AT)	VRE	<---	CE	2.513	0.627	4.01	***	[0.635, 1.283]	Significant
	VRE	<---	FT	−0.083	0.113	−0.733	0.464	[−0.170, 0.082]	Not Significant
	VRE	<---	CEXATM	−0.015	0.022	−0.687	0.492	[−0.434, 0.236]	Not Significant

Alt Text: “Table 4 displays the results of moderator analyses, illustrating how different variables influence the strength or direction of relationships between independent and dependent variables. The table includes interaction terms, coefficients, standard errors, and significance levels, showing the moderating effects across various conditions or groups”. <--- indicates the direction of estimation in the structural equation model (e.g., VRE <--- CE means CE is a predictor of VRE). *** indicates p < 0.001.

).

Validation of Hypotheses 1–17: The strong factor loadings across the nine dimensions support Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 9, demonstrating that each dimension positively affects the VRE. The significant mediation by Hope for WB supports Hypothesis 10 through Hypothesis 12, while the significant direct and indirect effects on MIL validate Hypothesis 13 through Hypothesis 15. The negative moderation by FT supports Hypothesis 16, while the non-significant moderation by AT partially supports Hypothesis 17.

In response to the reviewer’s comment regarding common method bias, we have included a description of the procedural and statistical remedies used. Specifically, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted, and results showed that the first factor explained only 47.44% of the variance, suggesting that common method bias is not a significant concern.

Although several items within constructs such as Rarity, Frequency, and Adventurer Traits displayed factor loadings slightly below the commonly recommended threshold of 0.50, these items were retained based on theoretical and contextual considerations. Specifically, Rarity is conceptually central to the framework of collectable experience, even though its practical impact may be diminishing due to increasing accessibility of VR technologies. Meanwhile, Frequency and Adventurer Traits are inherently sensitive to personal and situational variables such as cultural background, natural disasters, or pandemic-related travel restrictions, which may have introduced variance across samples. Moreover, preserving the full item set across multiple culturally diverse samples (e.g., Taiwan and MTurk) enhances cross-sample comparability and ecological validity. Therefore, we maintained these items and clearly flagged them in Table 1, while also reporting AVE and CR for each construct individually, in accordance with the recommendations of Fornell and Larcker.

8. Data Analysis and Model Evaluation

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to estimate the measurement and structural models using AMOS 26.0. Prior to the analysis, data screening procedures were conducted. Multivariate outliers were assessed via Mahalanobis distance, and no influential outliers were identified. Measurement reliability and validity were evaluated through multiple indicators. Cronbach’s alpha and Composite Reliability (CR) values for all constructs exceeded the accepted threshold of 0.70, supporting internal consistency. Convergent validity was established as all Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values exceeded 0.50, and most factor loadings were greater than 0.60. Items falling below the 0.50 loading threshold were retained for theoretical completeness (e.g., rarity, frequency, traits) but noted with caution in the discussion section.

Discriminant validity was confirmed via the Fornell–Larcker criterion, and squared multiple correlations indicated that item-level variances explained by their latent constructs ranged between 0.243 and 0.791. These results support the model’s measurement quality.

Model fit indices also indicated an acceptable fit between the hypothesized model and the observed data: χ²/df = 4.001, CFI = 0.865, TLI = 0.853, IFI = 0.866, and NFI = 0.829. The RMSEA was 0.075 with a 90% confidence interval of [0.073, 0.078], indicating moderate model fit. Although the χ²/df ratio slightly exceeds the ideal range (<3), other indices fall within acceptable thresholds (Hu & Bentler, 1999) [96], supporting the structural validity of the model.

9. Sample 2

The second sample consisted of 105 participants recruited via Amazon Mturk, representing a diverse demographic with an even gender split and a broad age distribution (see Table 2). Participants engaged in the same VRE and completed identical questionnaires. Factor loadings for the nine dimensions were consistent with those from Sample 1, with Rarity ranging from 0.402 to 0.796, Exotic from 0.727 to 0.872, Variety from 0.791 to 0.931, Extreme from 0.693 to 0.911, Adventurous from 0.799 to 0.932, Live from 0.807 to 0.943, Sublime from 0.869 to 0.933, Surprise from 0.758 to 0.963, and Once from 0.678 to 0.942 (see Table 1). The high loadings across all dimensions underscore the universal appeal of varied and unique VRE among a global audience.

Mediation analysis for Sample 2 showed that the direct effect of VRE on MIL was significant (Estimate = 1.189, p < 0.001), but the indirect effect through Hope was not, indicating that Hope did not significantly influence the relationship between VR and life meaning. For WB, both the direct effect of VRE (Estimate = 0.416, p = 0.007) and the indirect effect through Hope (Estimate = 0.606, p < 0.001) were significant, highlighting the role of Hope in enhancing well-being through VR (see Table 3). In terms of moderation, FT again negatively moderated the CE to VRE relationship (Estimate = −0.195, p = 0.025), while AT did not exhibit a significant moderating effect, consistent with the findings from Sample 1 (see Table 4).

Validation of Hypotheses 1–17: The consistent factor loadings across the nine dimensions support Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 9, demonstrating that these dimensions positively impact the VRE across different demographics. The mediation by Hope for WB and the significant effects on MIL validate Hypothesis 10 through Hypothesis 15, while the negative moderation by FT supports Hypothesis 16. The non-significant moderation by AT provides partial support for Hypothesis 17.

10. Study 2

10.1. Sample 1

In this study, 116 Taiwanese university students (the same participants as in S1) explored the “Along the River During the Qingming Festival” VV experience (see Figure 3). The factor loadings for the nine collectible dimensions remained consistent with those observed in Study 1. Specifically, Rarity ranged from 0.474 to 0.579, Exotic from 0.755 to 0.844, Variety from 0.851 to 0.893, Extreme from 0.688 to 0.823, Adventurous from 0.657 to 0.750, Live from 0.895 to 0.878, Sublime from 0.883 to 0.822, Surprise from 0.887 to 0.860, and Once from 0.755 to 0.851 (see Table 2). These results confirm that the appeal of varied and unique experiences extends to VV just as it does to VR.

Mediation analysis revealed that both the direct (Estimate = 0.430, p < 0.001) and indirect effects of VRE on MIL through Hope (Estimate = 0.515, p < 0.001) were significant, underscoring Hope’s role in enhancing life meaning through VV. For WB, although the direct effect of VRE was significant (Estimate = 0.165, p = 0.089), the indirect effect was not, suggesting that Hope does not strongly mediate the relationship between VV and well-being in this sample (see Table 3). The moderation analysis showed that FT did not significantly moderate the CE to VRE relationship, while AT also did not show a significant moderating effect (see Table 4).

Validation of Hypotheses 1–17: The high factor loadings across the nine dimensions support Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 9, confirming that VV experiences positively influence these dimensions. The significant mediation by Hope for MIL and the partial mediation for WB support Hypothesis 10 through Hypothesis 15. The non-significant moderation effects for FT and AT provide partial support for Hypothesis 16 and Hypothesis 17, indicating that these traits may have less influence in the Taiwanese context.

10.2. Sample 2

This sample, consisting of 105 participants from Amazon MTurk (the same as S2) (see Table 2), explored the same VV experience. The factor loadings were similarly high, with Rarity ranging from 0.402 to 0.796, Exotic from 0.727 to 0.872, Variety from 0.791 to 0.931, Extreme from 0.693 to 0.911, Adventurous from 0.799 to 0.932, Live from 0.807 to 0.943, Sublime from 0.869 to 0.933, Surprise from 0.758 to 0.963, and Once from 0.678 to 0.942, consistent with the findings from previous samples (see Table 1).

Mediation analysis for Sample 4 showed that the direct effect of VRE on MIL was significant (Estimate = 0.665, p < 0.001), as was the indirect effect through Hope (Estimate = 0.427, p < 0.001), highlighting Hope’s mediating role. For WB, although the direct effect of VRE was significant (Estimate = 0.276, p = 0.020), the indirect effect was not, indicating that Hope does not significantly mediate this relationship (see Table 3). The moderation analysis showed that FT again negatively moderated the CE to VRE relationship (Estimate = −0.247, p = 0.006), while AT did not show a significant moderating effect (see Table 4).

Validation of Hypotheses 1–17: the strong factor loadings for the nine dimensions continue to support Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 9, confirming their positive impact on VV experiences. The significant mediation by Hope for MIL and the partial mediation for WB validate Hypothesis 10 through Hypothesis 15, while the negative moderation by FT supports Hypothesis 16. The non-significant AT moderation aligns with partial support for Hypothesis 17.

11. Study 3

The final study focused on 117 participants from mainland China, who were exposed to the same VV experience as in Study 2. The factor loadings for the nine dimensions were consistent with previous studies, with Rarity ranging from 0.508 to 0.862, Exotic from 0.755 to 0.844, Variety from 0.791 to 0.931, Extreme from 0.693 to 0.911, Adventurous from 0.799 to 0.932, Live from 0.807 to 0.943, Sublime from 0.869 to 0.933, Surprise from 0.758 to 0.963, and Once from 0.678 to 0.942. These results indicate a strong interest in a wide range of unique and novel experiences within the Chinese context, consistent with findings from other cultural backgrounds.

In the mediation analysis for this sample, the direct effect of VRE on Meaning in Life (MIL) was significant (Estimate = 0.478, p < 0.001), while the indirect effect through Hope was also significant (Estimate = 0.476, p < 0.001). This finding suggests that Hope plays a critical role in enhancing the sense of life meaning through VV experiences. Similarly, for well-being (WB), both the direct effect of VRE (Estimate = 0.411, p = 0.002) and the indirect effect through Hope (Estimate = 0.644, p < 0.001) were significant, indicating a strong mediating role of Hope. The moderation analysis revealed that Traveler Frequency (FT) negatively moderated the CE to VRE relationship (Estimate = −0.385, p < 0.001), while Adventurer Traits (AT) did not show significant moderation, consistent with findings from other samples.

Validation of Hypotheses 1–17: The high factor loadings across the nine dimensions in the Chinese sample confirm the positive impact of these dimensions on VV experiences, supporting Hypothesis 1 through Hypothesis 9. The significant mediation by Hope for both MIL and WB validates Hypothesis 10 through Hypothesis 15. The negative moderation by FT supports Hypothesis 16, while the non-significant AT moderation provides partial support for Hypothesis 17.

12. General Discussion

This research investigated the impact of virtual experiences on well-being and Meaning in Life (MiL) through two distinct virtual experience types: Virtual Reality (VR) as a tool for sustainable corporate branding exemplified by the “Journey to the Cross”, and Virtual Virtuality (VV) represented by “Along the River During the Qingming Festival”. Across three studies with diverse samples, the findings consistently demonstrated that both VR and VV experiences significantly enhance users’ well-being and MiL. The studies also highlighted the significant role of psychological mediators like hope and revealed how individual differences, particularly Traveler Frequency, moderated the relationship between collectable experience as a gamified consumer–brand engagement strategy and virtual experiences. However, Adventurer Traits did not show significant moderation across samples, suggesting that the impact of virtual experiences is more universally driven by the content’s characteristics and the psychological states they evoke rather than by individual traits alone.

12.1. Comparison with Prior Literature

Prior research has highlighted the capacity of immersive media to influence psychological well-being and meaning construction. For example, Baños found that immersive VR environments can elicit positive emotional responses and foster a sense of presence, while more recent work by Pine and Gilmore and Han suggested that memorable and engaging experiences—such as those characterized by novelty and variety—contribute significantly to long-term satisfaction and well-being. However, few studies have quantitatively examined the mediating role of hope in these processes, particularly within virtual collectible experiences. Our findings extend these insights by empirically validating that hope not only mediates the impact of virtual experiences on well-being but also facilitates a deeper sense of meaning in life (MIL), consistent with the theoretical framework proposed by Snyder.

Additionally, previous works, have emphasized the motivational appeal of collectible experiences in consumer behavior, but these were largely focused on material or real-world contexts. This study extends the concept to the virtual domain, demonstrating that dimensions like Rarity, Exoticness, Variety, and Surprise retain psychological significance even in digital environments. Interestingly, the diminishing moderating effect of Adventurer Traits contrasts with earlier findings by Zuckerman, who suggested that novelty-seeking traits strongly shape experience preferences. This discrepancy may reflect the universalizing effect of immersive technology, where even low-sensation seekers can experience high engagement due to the medium’s vividness and narrative framing.

Finally, our results align with existing concerns in tourism and branding literature (e.g., Gretzel et al., 2020) [97] that repeated exposure or high travel frequency may attenuate the perceived novelty of virtual content, thereby reducing psychological benefits. The consistent negative moderation effect of Traveler Frequency across samples substantiates this concern, suggesting that content designers must emphasize uniqueness and personalization to sustain user engagement over time.

12.2. Theoretical Implications

This study contributes not only by validating the psychological impact of VR and VV experiences but also by theoretically enriching how such digital experiences can fulfill higher-order psychological needs. Specifically, the findings corroborate the self-determination theory, where collectible experiences in virtual environments satisfy needs for autonomy (through exploration), competence (through technical interaction), and relatedness (via symbolic or shared experiences). This conceptual extension positions VR and VV not merely as technological innovations, but as psychologically meaningful platforms that support sustainable consumer engagement.

Furthermore, the significant mediation effect of hope aligns with positive psychology frameworks, emphasizing how immersive digital interactions build forward-looking cognitive–emotional resources that support human flourishing. Rather than offering momentary distraction, virtual experiences serve as catalysts for deeper personal meaning and sustainable well-being. This underscores the role of hope not just as a mediator, but as a psychological asset that virtual environments can cultivate.

The research also highlights the moderating role of Traveler Frequency, demonstrating that individuals who travel more frequently may experience diminishing novelty and emotional return from virtual experiences. This finding expands theoretical understanding by linking the effectiveness of immersive content to user habituation and novelty decay. It suggests that the success of virtual experiences in promoting sustainable engagement depends on thoughtful content renewal and variation.

Moreover, this study extends the concept of collectible experiences into the virtual realm, showing that dimensions such as rarity, exotic, variety, extreme, adventurous, live, sublime, surprise, and once positively shape virtual experiences. These findings enrich theories on the motivational value of possessions by confirming that virtualized symbolic goods—though intangible—can equally satisfy psychological needs. As such, the study contributes a digital re-interpretation of consumption-driven meaning-making and proposes that virtual collectibles function as a new category of value-bearing experiences aligned with the sustainability narrative.

Finally, by delivering meaningful and emotionally resonant experiences through VR/VV, brands can align with sustainability values such as cultural preservation, digital accessibility, and low-carbon tourism. This directly links immersive technology to brand sustainability strategies, especially in post-pandemic consumer expectations around ethical consumption and climate-conscious engagement.

12.3. Managerial Implications

For managers and practitioners in the VR and VV industries, these findings offer actionable strategies for product design, content marketing, and long-term consumer engagement. Emphasizing unique, rare, and emotionally engaging content can elevate user satisfaction and distinguish offerings in a rapidly evolving market. By tailoring collectible experiences that resonate with deeper psychological needs, companies can foster user immersion and sustained interest.

Moreover, the study offers insights into user segmentation strategies. For example, individuals with lower traveler frequency may benefit more from VR/VV in terms of novelty and emotional payoff, suggesting potential for targeting less mobile or resource-constrained audiences. Conversely, for experienced travelers, increasing the complexity or interactivity of content may help maintain engagement.

Hope, as a central psychological mediator, offers an underutilized opportunity in marketing. Managers can design narrative-driven VR/VV experiences that emphasize personal growth, purpose, and future orientation—such as spiritual journeys, goal achievements, or values-aligned missions. These experiences not only enhance well-being but also promote deeper emotional bonds with the brand, fostering brand loyalty and positive word-of-mouth.

Tourism operators and related businesses can also leverage these insights by offering VR-based simulations of travel that fulfill psychological needs without physical movement. In doing so, they can attract environmentally conscious consumers and reduce their carbon footprint. Positioning virtual experiences as tools for psychological enrichment and sustainable lifestyle alignment—rather than pure entertainment—can unlock new value propositions and support broader ESG goals.

13. Limitations and Future Research

Despite the significant contributions of this research, several limitations should be noted. First, the reliance on self-reported measures introduces the potential for biases, such as social desirability and self-selection. Future research could benefit from incorporating objective measures of well-being and psychological impact, such as physiological indicators or behavioral data, to provide a more comprehensive assessment of the effects of VR and VV experiences.

Second, while this study focused on the mediating role of hope and the moderating effects of Traveler Frequency and Adventurer Traits, other potential mediators and moderators were not explored. Future research should investigate additional psychological and contextual factors, such as resilience, social connectedness, or cultural background, which may influence the relationship between virtual experiences and well-being.

Further research could also examine the long-term effects of VR and VV experiences on well-being and MiL, as well as explore their potential therapeutic applications. For instance, studying the use of these technologies in clinical settings to treat anxiety, depression, or PTSD could provide valuable insights into their broader applicability. Additionally, exploring different types of VR and VV content, such as educational or social simulations, and varying delivery methods, like augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality (MR), could offer deeper insights into optimizing virtual experiences for different user groups and contexts.