Sustainable Energy Practices in Thailand and Japan: A Comparative Analysis

Abstract

This study investigates the comparative analysis of the divergent pathways of sustainable energy development in Thailand and Japan. It offers a nuanced analysis of their policy frameworks, technological advancements, and socioeconomic contexts. This study elucidates the distinct strategies of the two nations by leveraging a robust dataset from sources including the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) and Japan’s Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) toward renewable energy. The key findings indicate that Thailand has capitalized on policy instruments such as the Alternative Energy Development Plan 2018 (AEDP 2018) to augment its renewable energy capacity, particularly in the solar and biomass sectors. This policy-driven approach addresses the rural–urban energy divide and enhances energy access nationwide. Conversely, Japan’s trajectory is characterized by integrating technological innovations like smart grids and the Feed-in Tariff (FiT) system, which have catalyzed significant increases in solar energy adoption and efficiency. Japan places great emphasis on technological solutions that underscore its strategy to mitigate the legacy constraints of energy infrastructure post-Fukushima. The implications of these findings are extended beyond national borders, offering critical insights into the complex interplay between policy, technology, and social engagement in the renewable energy transition. This study highlights the potential for community-based renewable energy projects in Thailand to drive economic growth and social equity. At the same time, Japan’s experience illustrates the importance of regulatory reforms and technological leadership in overcoming structural barriers to energy innovation. These insights are particularly relevant for policymakers and stakeholders aiming to balance the imperatives of energy security, economic development, and environmental sustainability. Finally, this study emphasizes the need for tailored strategies that align renewable energy adoption with the unique contexts of each country, thereby enhancing global efforts against climate change.

1. Introduction

Switching to sustainable energy is essential to combat climate change and reduce reliance on fossil fuels [1]. Despite numerous global attempts, major obstacles still hinder the effective adoption of sustainable energy practices, particularly in nations with diverse socioeconomic conditions. Conventional methods such as public awareness campaigns and government policies are insufficient in addressing the unique regional and technological differences [2]. Thus, a comparative study between Thailand, a country with diverse socioeconomic contexts, and Japan, which asserts advanced technology, is warranted to identify effective practices in different settings [3,4].

Recent studies have investigated renewable energy from various perspectives, including its incorporation into national power systems. Eze et al. reviewed renewable energy laws’ influence on economic growth in 66 nations. They observed that the results differ depending on the design of the policies and the economic structure [5]. Similarly, Mohammadi et al. analyzed the relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in 59 countries, including 30 developed and 29 developing countries. Their analysis indicates the strong beneficial influence of renewable energy consumption on economic growth in both types of countries, emphasizing the necessity of policies to support the independent growth of renewable energy sectors to drive economic development [6]. Pham et al. utilized machine learning methodologies to forecast wind power, highlighting the significance of cutting-edge technology in enhancing energy systems [7]. Otaki and Shaw visualized the expenses of transporting ammonia from India to Japan using renewable energy sources, aiming to reduce ammonia prices at the Tokyo Bay port and develop a hydrogen supply chain connecting the two countries [8]. However, most studies have concentrated on a single technology or economic effect without comparing socioeconomic situations in a wider context. For example, Jotaworn et al. examined Thailand’s willingness to pay for renewable energy options. However, they did not expand the analysis to Japan or incorporate a more comprehensive comparative viewpoint [9].

This study comprehensively addresses all the gaps by comparing sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan. The energy consumption patterns and adoption rates of renewable energy sources over the past decade, alongside an evaluation of policy effectiveness, will be assessed utilizing reputable sources such as Our World in Data, the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), and Japan’s Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE). Through an analysis of Thailand’s public awareness campaigns, specifically the Alternative Energy Development Plan 2018 (AEDP 2018), and an examination of Japan’s technology advancements (e.g., smart grids), effective strategies will be identified under different socioeconomic and technological contexts [10,11].

This study highlights the challenges of implementing sustainable energy practices in countries with varying socioeconomic contexts through a comparative analysis of Thailand and Japan. This study has developed several research questions and hypotheses: What are Thailand’s and Japan’s key differences and similarities in renewable energy policies? How do technological innovations impact both countries’ energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption? What role do public awareness campaigns play in promoting energy-saving behaviors? How do socioeconomic contexts affect the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan? The developed hypotheses suggest that renewable energy policies, technological innovations, public awareness campaigns, and socioeconomic contexts significantly impact the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in both countries. The main objective of this study is to provide significant perspectives for decision makers by emphasizing the necessity for continuous improvements and targeted interventions. It will help to advance global energy efficiency and shift toward sustainable systems, ensuring environmental protection against harmful emissions.

First, a thorough analysis of the available literature on renewable energy policies and practices in Thailand and Japan is presented. The following section presents the research methodology, including the data sources and analytical procedures that were implemented. In the next section, the main findings of the comparative analysis are explained, emphasizing the differences and similarities in policy effectiveness and renewable energy adoption between the two countries. Finally, the policy implications of the findings are examined, and further study directions are suggested.

2. Literature Review

The literature review is divided into four subsections to comprehensively analyze the existing research on sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan.

2.1. Policies on Renewable Energy and Socioeconomic Impacts

Renewable energy policies have become essential to global efforts for sustainable development, climate change mitigation, and energy security. These policies aim to transit economies from fossil fuels to cleaner sources like solar, wind, biomass, and hydropower, impacting economic growth, employment, and social equity [5,12,13]. Understanding these impacts requires a framework integrating economic growth theories, environmental economics, and socio-technical transition theory.

Country-specific studies provide insights into these dynamics. For instance, research in Thailand indicates, that renewable energy boosts economic growth during recessions but dampens it during expansions, indicating a need for adaptive policies that account for economic cycles [14]. After the Fukushima disaster, Japan implemented the Feed-in Tariff (FiT) system, accelerating renewable energy adoption, driven by socioeconomic factors like unemployment and land availability [15]. Additionally, studies have shown that Japan’s renewable energy consumption reduces CO₂ emissions while supporting economic growth by highlighting the importance of aligning economic and environmental objectives [16].

Renewable energy from residual biomass offers socioeconomic and environmental benefits, emphasizing community empowerment and technological capability enhancement in Columbia [17]. This perspective aligns with socio-technical transition theory, underscoring community engagement’s role in energy transitions [18]. On the other hand, financial constraints, technological limitations, regulatory barriers, and social acceptance persist. Germany has demonstrated the importance of community involvement by overcoming these challenges, although transitioning costs and grid management remain significant [19].

Comparative analysis reveals the need for coherent frameworks to align policy objectives with economic growth. Integrating renewable and non-renewable energy sources, fostering inter-country collaboration and knowledge sharing, and promoting technological innovation are all critical for stable energy transitions [5,12,20]. Quantitative data from the US Energy Information Administration, for example, highlighted the economic benefits of renewable energy policies, which supported over 850,000 jobs and contributed to a USD 64 billion industry in 2020 [21]. By integrating technological advancements with environmental and financial goals, policymakers can harness renewable energy’s full potential to drive sustainable development [22,23].

2.2. Technological Innovation in Renewable Energy

Technological innovation is crucial for transforming the global energy landscape by enhancing renewable energy systems’ efficiency, reliability, and sustainability. Technological advancements become increasingly important as energy demands grow and climate challenges intensify. Smart grids integrate communication technologies with power systems for real-time monitoring and control, facilitating renewable energy integration and supporting decentralized systems [24].

Machine learning (ML) further optimizes renewable energy systems by predicting consumption patterns and improving efficiency. Algorithms like RNNs and CNNs have enhanced grid stability and performance [25]. ML improves forecasting accuracy in wind energy and reduces generation uncertainty [26,27]. Solar energy systems have advanced with perovskite solar cells, offering higher efficiencies and cost-effective solutions for large-scale production [28]. Tandem solar cells, combining semiconductor materials, can achieve even higher efficiencies [29]. Wind energy technology has also progressed with innovations like vertical-axis wind turbines (VAWTs) and floating wind turbines for deeper waters [30].

Despite these advancements, challenges like scalability, grid integration, and cybersecurity have hindered widespread adoption. As smart grids become more interconnected, they are vulnerable to cyberattacks, requiring robust cybersecurity measures [13]. Economic barriers persist, particularly in ML solutions, where high initial investments and skilled personnel are needed. Addressing these challenges necessitates policy interventions and industry collaborations to reduce costs and facilitate deployment.

Energy storage solutions are vital for mitigating the intermittency issues associated with solar and wind power. Advances in battery technology, including lithium-ion and solid-state batteries, improve energy density and cost-effectiveness, while phase-change materials enhance efficiency and peak load management. Market incentives like feed-in tariffs and renewable energy certificates promote adoption and government support for research and development that drives innovation and sustainability goals.

2.3. Public Awareness and Behavioral Aspects of Energy Consumption

Public awareness and behavioral aspects significantly influence energy consumption patterns and the success of renewable energy policies [31]. Cultural norms and values shape how individuals and societies perceive and engage with energy consumption. Research has found that regions where cultural values were aligned with sustainability see greater acceptance and integration of energy-efficient technologies, highlighting the need for culturally tailored policies that resonate with local values [32].

In one study [33], it was found that there is a strong relationship between awareness and energy-saving practices in Polish households. Public awareness campaigns can lead to behavioral changes, which increases the chances of making informed, sustainable choices through communicating the environmental benefits of conservation and its economic advantages.

Consumer nudges that work effectively towards promoting sustainable consumption include simple reminders or real-time feedback [34]. These behavioral nudges support accountability and conscious use of energy among consumers by enabling them to identify their wasteful habits; hence, they make informed decisions on how to control their consumption patterns. Still, many have adopted such initiatives, yet there remains a gap between the knowledge about these measures and the action taken towards implementing them due to psychological barriers like cognitive biases or socioeconomic factors, including income levels that affect access to the technology needed for adoption.

Smart technologies such as smart meters and home automation systems, facilitate the real-time use of power, encouraging more conscious behavior among users and ultimately changing the energy consumption patterns. When coupled with educational programs designed to raise awareness about their potential impact on reducing electricity bills, these technologies reduce household electricity usage by up to 10% [35].

2.4. Comparative Analysis of Energy Policies

Energy policies have evolved within an everchanging framework involving economics, growth objectives, environmental sustainability commitments, and technological progress, thus necessitating a comparative analysis that gives insights into the effectiveness of challenges and adaptability to guide robust local global energy strategies [36,37].

Germany’s energy policy represents an integrated approach aimed at increasing renewable sources while phasing out nuclear power altogether, raising its share from 6% in 2000 to 45% [12]. However, the transition costs EUR 32 billion annually, highlighting the trade-offs between environmental goals and financial viability. Whereas China’s strategy combines renewable and non-renewable sources to meet demand, USD 83 billion was invested in solar wind technologies last year, leading to renewable production [6]. Nevertheless, coal still dominates, with a share of 57.7% of total consumption, thus signaling the need for multifaceted policies to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

The policy instruments used in Nigeria and South Africa, including tax incentives and subsidies, have catalyzed investment and created jobs [5]. For instance, investment has increased rural access by twenty percent, but infrastructure regulatory bottlenecks persist, an issue that requires synchronized implementation policies. Japan’s and South Korea’s policies have influenced technological innovation diffusion, particularly fostering R&D efforts like hydrogen and fuel cell development plans. Despite significant progress, several political, social, and economic barriers have hindered effective policymaking strategies. Rong et al. [20] demonstrated that if stability assures transition confidence, then economic policy uncertainty affects investments.

International collaborations have addressed the knowledge-sharing issues related to global energy transitions. The Paris Agreement is an example of countries’ cooperation and joint working towards achieving climate targets. Rocha-Meneses et al. [17] suggested that for adopting the best practices for formulation, cross-border collaboration should also be encouraged, such as what happened in Denmark, where wind farms were built in Swedish regions owned jointly by citizens. The economic impact of renewable energy policy has been investigated; renewable energy consumption positively impacts economic growth. Still, it may also increase CO₂ emissions due to a reliance on fossil fuels in the energy mix [38]. Marinescu et al. [3] used bibliometric analysis to investigate the global trends in renewable energy policies by emphasizing the relationship between economic growth and CO₂ emissions, implying that consistent environmental measures are required for successful energy transitions.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Questions and Hypotheses

This study addresses the main research question: How do the socioeconomic contexts, technological advancements, and public awareness campaigns in Thailand and Japan influence the effectiveness of their renewable energy policies and practices?

Later, more specific research questions were developed to guide the comparative analysis, and corresponding hypotheses were formulated considering the literature review results. These research questions and hypotheses provided a structured framework for comparing Thailand and Japan’s sustainable energy practices. The hypotheses were analyzed in the Section 4.

• Research Question 1: What are Thailand’s and Japan’s key differences and similarities in renewable energy policies?
• Research Question 2: How do technological innovations impact both countries’ energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption?
• Research Question 3: What role do public awareness campaigns play in promoting energy-saving behaviors in Thailand and Japan?
• Research Question 4: How do socioeconomic contexts affect the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan?

The first research question investigates the key differences and similarities in renewable energy policies between the two countries, which is critical for determining each country’s distinct approaches to promoting renewable energy adoption. The second research question investigates the impact of technological innovations on energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption, including advanced technologies like smart grids and machine learning, and their role in improving energy systems. The third research question examines the role of public awareness campaigns in promoting energy-saving behaviors, specifically, which factors influence consumer behavior and the adoption of renewable energy technologies. Finally, the fourth research question examines how socioeconomic contexts influence the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan, considering income levels, education, and government policies, and explores the impact on energy practices.

Hypothesis 1:

Renewable energy policies in Thailand and Japan differ significantly in design and implementation due to varying socioeconomic contexts.

Hypothesis 2:

Technological innovations such as smart grids and machine learning have a more substantial and positive impact on energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption in Japan compared to Thailand.

Hypothesis 3:

Due to cultural differences, public awareness campaigns are more effective in promoting energy-saving behaviors in Thailand than in Japan.

Hypothesis 4:

The socioeconomic contexts of Thailand and Japan significantly shape the effectiveness of their respective sustainable energy practices.

These hypotheses claim that renewable energy policies, technological innovations, public awareness campaigns, and socioeconomic contexts all significantly impact the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan. This study provides insights into how different socioeconomic, technological, and cultural contexts influence the success of renewable energy initiatives in these two countries by providing a detailed and comparative understanding of these factors.

3.2. Data Source and Collection

The data for this study were obtained from three repositories: Our World in Data, the EGAT, and ANRE. These sources were chosen based on their reliability, comprehensiveness, and relevance. Our World in Data offers comprehensive global datasets organized by country or energy category, making it easier to analyze historical trends. EGAT plays a vital role in comprehending Thailand’s energy systems by producing, providing, transmitting, and distributing electricity, thereby greatly influencing sustainability matters in Thailand. ANRE in Japan is responsible for supervising technological advancements and improvements in efficiency. It provides extensive information on the effects of policies, technological innovations, and annual energy statistics and is essential for assessing Japan’s initiatives in promoting sustainable energy and enhancing efficiency.

The data collection for this study was conducted between 2010 and 2022, which was a crucial timeframe for analyzing patterns and determining the correlation between the consumption of fossil fuels and the utilization rates of renewable energy. The analysis in this study entailed the identification of distinct categories of data, such as annual statistics on the consumption of fossil fuels and the increase in renewable energy capacity. Subsequently, relevant datasets were obtained by applying filters based on country or data type.

3.3. Historical Data Analysis

The trend analysis in this study involved examining historical datasets for energy consumption, renewable energy adoption, and fossil fuel use in Thailand and Japan between 2010 and 2022. The objective was to identify trends, calculate growth rates, and determine significant shifts in energy practices within these countries. Annual growth rates were calculated using the formula below to clarify year-on-year changes in energy consumption and renewable energy adoption.

$$Annual Growth Rate=\left({\displaystyle \frac{{Value}_{end}-{Value}_{start}}{{Value}_{start}}}\right)\times 100$$

(1)

The results provided valuable data on the rate of increase or decrease in energy consumption and the adoption of renewable energy. In addition, percentage changes were calculated for the entire period to evaluate the overall shift in consumption patterns and the development of renewable energy capacity. This analysis helps identify long-term trends and significant changes in both countries’ power sectors.

3.4. Policy Impact Assessment

The study examined the impact of key policies, such as Thailand’s AEDP 2018 and Japan’s FiT system, on energy management systems. The goal was to promote sustainable development by adopting environmentally friendly power generation and consumption methods. The objective of AEDP 2018 is to increase the proportion of solar, wind, biomass, and hydroelectricity projects in the national energy supply to 30% by 2037. Such an increase is expected to enhance energy security, decrease greenhouse gas emissions, and support sustainable development. Japan’s FiT system, implemented in 2012, expedites the proliferation of renewable electricity production by establishing predetermined purchase prices for every kilowatt-hour generated from renewable sources. This system plays a substantial role in developing extensive solar power facilities throughout Japan. The evaluation criteria for these policies encompassed quantifying the increase in generation capacity and its contribution to the overall energy supply, evaluating enhancements in energy efficiency, analyzing the environmental consequences of emission reductions, and assessing the economic effects (e.g., job creation) within the renewable energy industry.

3.5. Comparative Analysis

This section analyzes the socioeconomic contexts of Thailand and Japan, which significantly influence attitudes towards conserving electricity and improving efficiency. Japan exhibits rapid industrialization and possesses advanced technological infrastructure, whereas, in contrast, Thailand predominantly relies on agriculture. Therefore, their approach to this matter may vary. Nevertheless, both countries must formulate strategies to transition their economies into low-carbon ones.

Policy frameworks vary depending on the specific objectives of each country. For example, Thailand emphasizes public participation more, whereas Japan focuses on pricing mechanisms. Public participation campaigns have demonstrated significant efficacy in Thailand’s energy policymaking processes. However, their effectiveness cannot be guaranteed in other contexts, such as Japan. The Japanese government has achieved substantial achievements by implementing smart grids and machine learning technologies, which have significantly improved the efficiency of power distribution systems. The insights gained from previous experiences can inform future actions promoting sustainable energy practices in various socioeconomic contexts where technology plays a crucial role.

3.6. Public Awareness Campaigns

The analysis evaluated multiple public awareness campaigns in terms of their efficacy in promoting energy-saving behaviors and cultivating sustainability. In Thailand, the study focused on initiatives such as the “No. 5 Energy Label” and EGAT’s “Energy Saving Campaign,” which aimed to reduce energy use by increasing public awareness about energy conservation. Similarly, in Japan, the “Cool Biz” and “Setsuden” campaigns were evaluated for their effectiveness in promoting energy-saving practices. The analysis of these campaigns involved using the quantitative data obtained from surveys conducted before and after the campaigns and qualitative insights derived from reports and case studies. This analysis aimed to assess the impact of each campaign and identify the factors that contributed to its success.

3.7. Evaluation of Technological Innovation

An assessment was conducted to determine the effects of technological advancements, such as smart grids and machine learning for energy forecasting, on the efficiency and stability of systems in Japan and Thailand. Specifically, the potential of smart grids to seamlessly integrate renewable sources and enhance reliability in grid networks was investigated and the effectiveness of machine learning algorithms in forecasting demand and optimizing management systems was evaluated. Case studies from both countries presented concrete examples of these technologies in operation, with performance metrics such as grid stability, energy savings, and the accuracy of energy forecasts utilized to assess their significance.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Energy Consumption Trends

Thailand and Japan exhibited divergent patterns in energy consumption between 2010 and 2022, influenced by their unique socioeconomic circumstances and policy interventions.

4.1.1. Energy Consumption Growth

Thailand’s energy consumption has experienced a growth of about 35%, climbing from approximately 70 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2010 to about 95 Mtoe in 2022. The main factors contributing to this growth are the country’s developing economy, urbanization, and industrialization. By utilizing the formula for annual growth rate, it can be determined that Thailand’s average annual growth rate of energy consumption is approximately 2.5% per year. The sectors making the most significant contributions to this increase are transport and industry, highlighting the urgent requirement for sustainable energy practices to reconcile economic growth with environmental sustainability. Rapid industrialization and urbanization in Thailand require implementing energy-efficient technologies and practices. The government has made significant progress through public awareness campaigns advocating for energy-efficient appliances and practices. Still, it is imperative to continue these efforts to address future energy demands effectively.

In contrast, Japan has experienced a modest decline in energy usage, with a decrease of approximately 5%. Specifically, energy consumption has dropped from around 431 Mtoe in 2010 to about 388 Mtoe in 2022. The decrease can be ascribed to multiple factors, such as implementing energy efficiency measures and stable population growth. Japan’s comprehensive energy efficiency measures and technological advancements have effectively reduced its energy consumption despite maintaining high levels of economic activity. The residential sectors and industries have demonstrated notable achievements in energy consumption initiatives due to these heightened endeavors, substantially contributing to the overall reduction.

The differing trends in energy consumption have been influenced by Thailand’s and Japan’s distinct socioeconomic contexts and policy frameworks, thereby supporting Hypothesis 1.

4.1.2. Renewable Energy Capacity Growth

Thailand has seen significant expansion in renewable energy capacity, mainly due to the rapid development of solar and biomass energy sources. Between 2010 and 2022, the country experienced a 60% increase in its renewable energy capacity, with solar energy capacity growing from almost nothing to around 3000 MW. The renewable energy capacity in Thailand experienced a consistent average annual growth rate of approximately 4.6%. The significant increase highlights the efficacy of Thailand’s AEDP 2018 policy, which has effectively stimulated investment in renewable energy projects. Thailand can further bolster its energy security and sustainability by incorporating additional renewable sources like wind and hydro.

Japan has made significant advances in expanding its renewable energy capacity, particularly in the field of solar power, which experienced a substantial increase due to the FiT system. Japan’s solar power capacity experiences an average annual growth rate of approximately 1212.26%. From 2012 to 2022, Japan exhibited a consistent annual growth rate of 28% in its solar power capacity. Japan’s strong policy framework and technological advancements are evident in the growth rates of renewable energy capacity, with solar power alone witnessing a remarkable increase from 5.3 GW in 2012 to 70 GW in 2022.

These results demonstrate the significant positive influence of technological advancements on improving energy efficiency and adopting renewable energy in Japan, which is consistent with Hypothesis 2.

Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the energy consumption patterns and the increase in renewable energy capacity growth for Thailand and Japan between 2010 and 2022. Figure 1 depicts the gradual rise in Thailand’s energy usage, which correlates with its economic progress, in contrast to Japan’s declining energy consumption resulting from energy efficiency initiatives and a stagnant population. The distinct trends underscore the difficulties that rapidly industrializing economies face in handling energy consumption and the reliability of tailored energy policies.

Figure 2 illustrates the notable advancements made by both countries in expanding their renewable energy capacities. The growth in Thailand, backed by the AEDP 2018 policy and financial incentives, demonstrates the efficacy of these measures in encouraging the adoption of renewable energy. Japan’s surge in solar power capacity, propelled by the FiT system, highlights the significance of robust financial incentives and technological progress in improving renewable energy infrastructure.

4.2. Key Influencing Factors

This section examines the various factors that impact energy consumption patterns and the implementation of renewable energy technologies.

4.2.1. Socioeconomic and Policy Factors Influencing Energy-Saving Behaviors

Their socioeconomic and policy factors greatly influence Thailand’s and Japan’s energy-saving behaviors and policy effectiveness. The Thai government implemented the 2018 AEDP to respond to rapid economic growth and enhanced electricity requirements. This plan aims to increase the variety of energy sources and achieve 30% renewable energy by 2037. Since its inception, the capacity of renewable energy has increased significantly: solar power has grown from 2570 MW in 2017 to 4000 MW in 2022, wind farms have increased from 1200 MW to 1800 MW, biomass power plants have expanded from 2000 MW to 2500 MW, and hydroelectric plants have risen from 2500 MW to 3000 MW. These increases are a direct consequence of specific incentives, public awareness campaigns, and financial assistance. The AEDP has effectively stimulated economic growth through job creation and decreased dependence on energy imports, strengthening energy security.

Conversely, Japan, with its advanced industrial economy and technological infrastructure, introduced the FiT system in 2012. This policy encourages renewable energy production by offering fixed purchase prices to energy suppliers. Since 2012, Japan has seen significant growth in renewable energy capacity: solar power surged from 5.3 GW in 2012 to 70 GW in 2022, wind power from 2 GW to 12 GW, biomass energy from 5 GW to 18 GW, and hydropower from 20 GW to 25 GW. The FiT system leverages Japan’s technological and financial strengths, driving rapid growth in the renewable energy sector. This growth is supported by a robust technical infrastructure and regulatory systems that ensure steady profits for investors, fostering favorable conditions for future investments. Both countries’ energy policies reflect their unique socioeconomic contexts and technological capabilities. Thailand’s AEDP supports economic development and energy security by creating jobs and reducing fuel imports, while Japan’s FiT system drives technological innovation and competitiveness in the renewable energy sector. These strategies address current energy demand challenges and contribute to sustainable long-term prosperity.

Figure 3 illustrates Thailand’s renewable energy capacity growth from 2017 to 2022. Solar capacity increased significantly from 2570 MW to 4000 MW, wind farms from 1200 MW to 1800 MW, biomass power plants from 2000 MW to 2500 MW, and hydroelectric plants from 2500 MW to 3000 MW. These trends highlight the effective implementation of the AEDP, driven by targeted incentives, public awareness campaigns, and financial support. The plan has mobilized resources, enhanced public participation in green energy projects, and supported economic growth by creating jobs and reducing reliance on energy imports.

Figure 4 illustrates Japan’s renewable energy capacity growth from 2012 to 2022. Solar capacity surged from 5.3 GW to 70 GW, wind power from 2 GW to 12 GW, biomass energy from 5 GW to 18 GW, and hydropower from 20 GW to 25 GW. This growth reflects Japan’s successful implementation of the FiT system, leveraging technological and financial strengths to drive rapid growth in the renewable energy sector. The robust technical infrastructure and regulatory systems have ensured steady profits for investors, fostering favorable conditions for future investments.

The growth rates in renewable energy capacity for both countries reflect their respective strategies and the effectiveness of their policies. Thailand’s focus on public awareness and government incentives has significantly improved solar, wind, biomass, and hydropower capacities. At the same time, Japan has leveraged technological innovations and financial incentives to achieve remarkable growth in its solar energy sector and steady increases in wind and biogas capacities. These trends highlight both countries’ commitment to achieving sustainability goals within global environmental agreements. Moreover, the significant improvements made by Thailand and Japan towards expanding their renewable energy capacities underscore the importance of tailored policy measures and technological advancements in driving the transition towards sustainable energy systems. The comparative analysis of these two nations provides valuable insights for policymakers and stakeholders globally, emphasizing the need for multifaceted approaches to promote renewable energy adoption and improve energy efficiency.

4.2.2. Public Awareness and Technological Advancements

In Thailand and Japan, public awareness campaigns are crucial for encouraging energy conservation. In Thailand, EGAT has launched various initiatives to promote public participation in energy-saving activities. For example, the “Clean Your Air, Care Your Life Project” offers discounted air-conditioner cleaning services to households consuming less than 500 units of electricity per month, improving air quality and reducing power bills. The “City Tree Project” installs air-purifying tree technology at hospitals to mitigate particulate matter pollution, enhance healthcare delivery, and raise awareness about energy conservation. The “Project to Improve Energy Efficiency” provides businesses with energy consultations to foster best practices for saving energy and reducing costs. The “No. 5 Energy-saving Curtain Project” partners with manufacturers to reduce heat gain in buildings, lowering air-conditioner use and cutting power expenses. The “No. 5 Energy-saving School Uniform” initiative promotes uniforms that do not require ironing, thus saving electricity and fostering sustainable behaviors among students. EGAT also organizes events like “Save Power x3”, offering tips on conserving energy at home and work, such as using LED bulbs instead of incandescent ones.

Public campaigns like “Cool Biz” and “Setsuden” have been effective in Japan following the Fukushima nuclear disaster. The “Cool Biz” campaign, initiated by the Ministry of Environment, allows workers to wear light clothing in summer to reduce air-conditioning usage, significantly reducing CO₂ emissions and energy consumption. The “Setsuden” campaign promotes reducing electricity consumption during peak periods by adjusting air-conditioning temperatures and encouraging the usage of energy-efficient appliances.

These findings highlight the importance of public awareness campaigns in promoting sustainable energy practices in both countries, demonstrating that such initiatives can be tailored to effectively address each nation’s unique cultural contexts, thereby supporting Hypothesis 3.

Technological advancements have further supported these initiatives. Smart grids enhance efficiency in energy systems by improving electricity distribution and integrating renewable sources like solar panels and wind turbines. Machine learning algorithms help predict future demands and optimize current usage, saving power. These policies and technological advancements demonstrate how multifaceted approaches can encourage sustainable behavior, resulting in significant energy savings, lower GHG emissions, and increased public participation in energy conservation.

These findings emphasize the importance of technological advancements in improving energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption, particularly in Japan, and support Hypothesis 2.

4.3. Comparative Analysis of Energy Policies

This section compares Thailand’s and Japan’s energy policies, focusing on socioeconomic contexts, policy frameworks, best practices, and theoretical integration.

4.3.1. Socioeconomic Contexts

Thailand’s and Japan’s energy-saving policies are influenced by their respective socioeconomic backgrounds. Thailand’s booming economy has increased energy demand, necessitating policies that raise public awareness and encourage using renewable energy sources. The AEDP 2018 has attracted investments in renewable energy, promoting economic growth and ensuring power supply security. Public awareness campaigns in urban and rural areas are essential due to varied population densities and the need for widespread knowledge about energy conservation.

With its advanced industrial base and technological infrastructure, Japan relies on technological innovation and regulatory measures to improve energy efficiency. Japanese society’s heightened environmental consciousness facilitates adoption of energy-efficient practices and technologies. Moreover, Japan’s energy policies aim to ensure long-term supplies while minimizing disruptions to industrial activities, leveraging technological prowess to maintain ecological balance.

These findings support Hypothesis 4, which states that socioeconomic contexts significantly impact the effectiveness of sustainable energy practices in both countries.

4.3.2. Policy Framework

Due to socioeconomic contexts and technological advancements, Thailand and Japan utilize different policy frameworks. Thailand’s policies, like the AEDP, aim to improve public participation and government incentives for renewable energy development. Solar power is prioritized due to its ease of installation at home, which reduces transmission losses. Amnesty tax programs also encourage investment in renewable energy sources like solar panels.

The FiT system in Japan, implemented in 2012, encourages investments in renewable energy by ensuring fixed prices per kWh of electricity produced by eligible technologies. This market-driven mechanism ensures long-term profitability for producers and consumers while supporting small and large-scale installations. Japan’s policy framework encourages green energy through financial incentives and technological advancements that align with its industrial strengths.

4.3.3. Best Practises and Lessons Learned

The comparison between Thailand and Japan provides useful insights into best practices for promoting sustainable energy. Thailand’s use of public awareness campaigns and financial incentives emphasizes the value of community involvement in renewable energy adoption. Japan’s emphasis on technological innovations, such as smart grids and machine learning, demonstrates how advanced technologies can improve energy efficiency and stabilize power networks.

Policymakers should consider socioeconomic contexts and technological advancements when developing energy policies. Developing countries like Thailand can benefit from public awareness campaigns and financial incentives. In contrast, developed countries like Japan should prioritize infrastructure upgrades and the integration of smart technologies to improve energy efficiency.

4.3.4. Integration with Theoretical Frameworks and the Existing Literature

The findings of this study align with existing theoretical frameworks and the literature on sustainable energy practices, particularly those emphasizing the interplay between renewable energy policies and economic growth. For example, Eze et al. [5] highlight the positive impact of renewable energy policies on economic growth, a theme that resonates with the comparative analysis of Thailand and Japan presented in this study. Both countries demonstrate how proactive renewable energy policies can drive economic development while promoting sustainability. Similarly, the role of economic policy uncertainty, as discussed by Rong et al. [20], is evident in the varying approaches of Thailand and Japan to renewable energy adoption, influencing their respective energy security and economic stability.

Moreover, this study’s results regarding the technological advancements and public acceptance of renewable energy are consistent with previous research. Pham et al. [7] underscore the significance of machine learning in forecasting wind energy, reflecting the technological innovations seen in Japan’s energy sector. This technological focus is further supported by the works of Sofian et al. [27], who explore the role of machine learning in optimizing solar and wind energy solutions. The high level of public willingness to pay for renewable energy in Thailand, as identified by Jotaworn et al. [9], further corroborates the positive social acceptance and readiness for energy transition observed in this study.

Finally, this study’s comparative analysis of sustainable energy practices in Thailand and Japan also highlights the importance of policy and cultural factors. Luangchosiri et al. [23] noted that the successful implementation of community renewable energy projects in Thailand hinges on local cultural factors and community engagement, supporting this study’s findings. It emphasizes the need for tailored policies considering local contexts and cultural dynamics. Furthermore, the analysis of economic impacts and policy challenges by Otaki et al [8] parallels the economic assessments and policy implications discussed in this study, reinforcing the critical role of strategic policy planning and international cooperation in advancing sustainable energy initiatives.

5. Conclusions

This study emphasizes the urgent necessity of transitioning to sustainable energy sources to address climate change and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The study examines the challenges of implementing renewable strategies in countries with diverse socioeconomic conditions by conducting a comparative analysis of Thailand and Japan. The energy consumption trends, adoption of renewable energy, and effectiveness of policies over the past decade are analyzed using data from sources such as Our World in Data, the EGAT, and ANRE.

Thailand and Japan have both achieved substantial advancements in their renewable energy capacity. Thailand has experienced a significant increase of around 60% in renewable energy capacity. This growth has been driven by the utilization of solar and biomass energy and has been further supported by public awareness campaigns and government incentives provided under the AEDP 2018. Japan has experienced a substantial increase in its renewable energy capacity, specifically in solar power. The FiT system and technological advancements, such as smart grids and machine learning, have driven this growth by 28%.

The study examined four key hypotheses: (1) renewable energy policies in Thailand and Japan differ significantly due to varying socioeconomic contexts, (2) technological innovations positively impact energy efficiency and renewable energy adoption more in Japan than in Thailand, (3) public awareness campaigns are more effective in Thailand due to cultural differences, and (4) socioeconomic contexts significantly shape the effectiveness of renewable energy practices in both countries. The results corroborate these hypotheses, highlighting the significance of socioeconomic contexts, technological advancements, and public awareness in shaping efficient renewable energy policies.

This study provides evidence-based insights for policymakers regarding promoting renewable energy adoption and enhancing energy efficiency. As a developing country, Thailand should prioritize enhancing public awareness programs. In contrast, as a developed country, Japan should improve its infrastructure and provide incentives for adopting energy-efficient technologies. Both nations should also encourage the advancement of intelligent power distribution networks and innovative renewable energy sources to decrease overall energy usage and enhance the integration of renewable energy.

This comparative analysis provides researchers with valuable insights, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches in various socioeconomic contexts. The study illustrates that integrating community engagement and technological advancements can greatly enhance the adoption of renewable energy. Future research will prioritize conducting longitudinal studies to evaluate the enduring effects of renewable energy policies in diverse socioeconomic settings. Additionally, it will involve a broader range of countries with varying degrees of technological progress and economic development. Furthermore, investigations will be carried out to explore the incorporation of emerging technologies like artificial intelligence and blockchain in optimizing renewable energy systems and improving policy efficacy. Finally, it will aid in developing versatile, universally implemented strategies to accomplish sustainable energy objectives.