Next Article in Journal
What Drives the Digital Customer Experience and Customer Loyalty in Mobile Short-Form Video Shopping? Evidence from Douyin (TikTok)
Previous Article in Journal
Feasibility Analysis of Biomass Hydrochar Blended Coal Injection for Blast Furnace
 
 
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Indicators of Geographic Potential and Business Opportunities for the Development of Active Tourism: Kayaking in Poland

by
Elżbieta Lewandowicz
Department of Geoinformation and Cartography, Institute of Geodesy and Civil Engineering, Faculty of Geoengineering, University Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10-561 Olsztyn, Poland
Sustainability 2022, 14(17), 10872; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710872
Submission received: 6 July 2022 / Revised: 20 August 2022 / Accepted: 22 August 2022 / Published: 31 August 2022
(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainability in Hospitality and Tourism Management)

Abstract

:
Poland’s natural and geographical features, including an abundance of rivers and lakes, create favorable conditions for the development of kayaking tourism. Poland is one of the leading European countries in terms of the number of kayaking trails. The aim of this study was to propose indicators for assessing the potential of Poland’s water resources for the development of kayaking activities. This research was pursued in several stages. The number of rivers where kayaking tours are organized was determined in the first stage of the study. Indicators describing the potential of the existing water bodies for the promotion of kayaking tourism were proposed in the second stage. The study produced surprising results. The number of kayaking tour operators has increased considerably in recent years, and new water tourism centers have been established in the vicinity of large urban areas. The popularity of well-established kayaking destinations in Warmia-Masuria, Podlasie and Western Pomerania, i.e., Polish regions with considerable potential for the development of water tourism, has declined. The study revealed that the success of kayaking businesses is presently determined by other factors, and further research is needed to identify these determinants.

1. Introduction

Recent years have witnessed an upsurge of interest in outdoor tourism, creating numerous opportunities for active recreation in nature [1]. Outdoor tourism is divided into several interlinked categories, including outdoor recreation, nature-based tourism, ecotourism, outdoor tourism and adventure tourism. Considerable research is being done in adventure tourism, which involves the participation in challenging outdoor activities. Adventure tourism enables participants to directly experience nature and perform various sporting activities such as mountain climbing, sea kayaking, ski touring and mountain biking. These activities are characterized by different levels of difficulty [2], distinguishing between hard and soft tourism activities. According to [3], soft adventure tourism is more popular, whereas hard tourism involves mainly individuals who form informal groups in pursuit of challenging leisure options. At present, adventure tourism is one of the most rapidly growing subsectors of the tourist industry [4]. The growing demand for outdoor tourism has contributed to the rapid development of entrepreneurship in the tourist industry. Outdoor recreation services are being increasingly commercialized [1,5]. The rising popularity of tourist activities in the natural environment has attracted the interest of researchers [1]. The relationship between natural resources and recreation has to be carefully examined, and changes in these synergistic interactions need to be monitored. New strategies are needed to preserve the existing resources and minimize the potentially destructive influence of tourist operations on the natural environment [6,7]. Such research can contribute to sustainable development that promotes the economic growth of regions while exerting only a minor impact on the geographical environment [8,9].
The popularity of water tourism and aquatic sports is on the rise around the world [10,11,12,13]. In Poland, the number of businesses organizing kayaking tours for active recreation seekers, seniors and weekend tourists has increased in recent years. Poland has highly favorable environmental conditions for the development of active water tourism, and it is one of the leading European countries in terms of the number of kayaking trails [14,15]. Navigable rivers spanning a total length of 11,000 km and 9300 lakes, with an area greater than 1 ha, create ample opportunities for kayaking trips [13].
The abundance of rivers and lakes has encouraged many Polish businesses to organize active tourism attractions. This is evidenced by a high number of organizations affiliated with the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society that are registered in the National Court Register, as well as a growing number of kayaking tour operators. The number of self-employed organizers of recreational and tourist activities is also on the rise [7]. These entrepreneurs are registered in the Central Register and Information on Economic Activity (CEIDG), and they are assigned a Polish Classification of Activities (PKD) code which denotes the type of business activities conducted. PKD code 7721Z represents providers of active tourism services, involving the rental and charter of recreational and sports equipment such as kayaks, sailboats, bicycles and skis.
The number of tourist activities decreased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic [16]. However, outdoor activities involve limited social contact and reduce the risk of virus transmission, which is why the restrictions relating to COVID-19 were first relaxed in the outdoor tourism sector. The tourist industry was transformed during the pandemic, and local tourist activities were chosen more frequently than global international travel [16].
The first aim of this study was to determine the number of Polish rivers where kayaking tours are organized. The main research objective was to calculate indicators of geographic potential (GPI) and business opportunities (BOI). They can be used to assess the potential of Polish rivers for active tourism promotion, and to calculate the indicators of water resource utilization (IWRU), and investment indicators (II) in Polish administrative units, “voivodeships”. The proposed indicators were compared to generate new information about kayaking services in Poland.
The study has two research objectives, which are reflected in the structure of the paper. The sources of data and methodology are described in Section 2, an attempt to determine the number of Polish rivers where kayaking tours are organized was made in Section 3, the GPI and BOI were calculated in Section 4, the results were discussed in Section 5, and the conclusions were formulated in Section 6.

2. Data and Methods

Data related to the use of water resources as kayaking trails are not available. In order to determine the number of Polish rivers where kayaking tours are organized, the following resources were analyzed:
  • Kayaking travel guides available on the Polish market;
  • Kayaking websites supported by the Kayaking Tourism Committee of the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society (PTTK), Tourism and Recreation Committee of the Polish Canoe Federation (PZK) and the Association of Canoeing Instructors and Trainers (SIiTK);
  • Reports on kayaking activities organized by PTTK, PZK and SIiTK as part of their statutory operations;
  • Websites of kayaking rentals and kayaking tour organizers;
  • Photographs and video footage posted online by kayaking tour participants.
The results of the analysis were used to create a database of rivers in Polish voivodeships where kayaking tours are organized. The data presented in Table 1 and the developed database of rivers were used to assess the potential of Polish voivodeships for the development of kayaking tourism.
The geographic potential of Polish voivodeships [17] was described based on the Database of Topographic Objects (BDOT), and the number of tourist operators was determined by analyzing CEIDG data (Table 1).
Entrepreneurship levels on the outdoor tourism market can be determined based on the geographic potential of Polish voivodeships and the number of companies offering outdoor tourism services. Various tourist function indicators have been proposed in the literature, including Baretje–Defert’s tourist function index, Charvat’s index and Schneider’s index [18,19]. These indices are expressed in terms of reference unit area or population. It can be assumed that tourist function indices on the outdoor tourism market would be most highly correlated with geographic potential and natural resources.
In the present study, the indicators were calculated using two methods. In the first method, the values presented in Table 1 were converted to the area of the reference unit (the voivodeship). The second method involved the conversion of these values per unit length of watercourses in voivodeships, based on the assumption that the length of watercourses determines the development of water tourism.
The following indicators were calculated in the first approach:
  • The geographic potential indicator (GPI) in Polish voivodeships (1)–(15);
  • The business opportunity indicator (BOI) in Polish voivodeships (1)–(18);
  • The indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU) for kayaking in Polish voivodeships (19)–(20).
The proposed indicators were calculated based on normalized data, in subsets describing the parameters of each indicator in voivodeships. For example, the GPI was calculated based on: forest area—GPI_forest (1)–(3); area of standing water bodies—GPI_water (4)–(6); length of watercourses—GPI river_length_ (7)–(9); and the number of watercourses—GPI_number of rivers (10)–(12). The GPI was calculated using Equations (13)–(15).
GPI forest * = { ( Forest area 1 Voivodeship _ area _ 1 ) 1 , ( Forest area 2 Voivodeship _ area _ 2 ) 2 , ,   ( Forest area i Voivodeship _ area _ i ) i }
where i = 1 ,   2 ,   3 ,   ,   17
GPI forest = { ( GPI forest 1 GPI forest max ) 1 , ( GPI forest 3 GPI forest max ) 2 , ,   ( GPI forest i GPI forest max ) i }
where GPI forest max   GPI forest i
GPI forest = { GPI forest 1 ,   GPI forest 2 ,   , GPI forest i   }
GP water * = { ( Water area 1 Voivodeship _ area _ 1 ) 1 , ( Water area 2 Voivodeship _ area _ 2 ) 2 , ,   ( Water area i Voivodeship _ area _ i ) i }
GPI water = { ( GPI water 1 GPI water max ) 1 , ( GPI water 3 GPI water max ) 2 , ,   ( GPI water i GPI water max ) i }
where GPI water max   GPI water i
GPI water = { GPI water 1 , GPI water 2 , , GPI water i }
GPI river _ lenght * = { ( River length 1 Voivodeship _ area _ 1 ) 1 , ( River length 2 Voivodeship _ area _ 2 ) 2 ,   ,   ( River length i Voivodeship _ area _ i ) i }
GPI river _ lenght = { ( GPI river _ length 1 GPI river _ length max ) 1 , ( GPI river _ length 3 GPI river _ length max ) 2 , ,   ( GPI river _ length i GPI river _ length max ) i }
where GPI river _ length max   GPI river _ length i
GPI river _ length = { GPI river _ length 1 ,   GPI river _ length 2 ,   , GPI river _ length i }
GPI number   of   rivers * = { ( Number   of 1 rivers Voivodeship _ area _ 1 ) 1 , ( Number   of 2 rivers Voivodeship _ area _ 2 ) 2 ,   ,   ( Number   of i rivers Voivodeship _ area _ i ) i }
GPI number   of   rivers = { ( GPI number   of   rivers 1 GPI number   of   rivers max ) 1 , ( GPI number   of   rivers 3 GPI number   of   rivers max ) 2 , ,   ( GPI number   of   rivers i GPI number   of   rivers max ) i }
where GPI number   of   rivers max   GPI number   of   rivers i
GPI number   of   rivers = { GPI number   of   rivers 1 ,   GPI number   of   rivers 2 ,   , GPI number   of   rivers i }
The GPI was calculated based on forest area, area of standing water bodies and the length and number of watercourses per unit area in each Polish voivodeship (13). The GPI was expressed as the normalized sum of the above variables (14)–(15).
GPI i = { GPI forest i + GPI water i + GPI river _ length i +   GPI number   of   rivers i }
GPI = { GPI 1 GPI max , GPI 2 GPI max ,   ,     GPI i GPI max }
where GPI max   GPI k i and k = {forest, water, river length, number of rivers}
GPI = { GPI 1 ,   GPI 2 ,   ,   GPI i }
The BOI in Polish voivodeships was calculated using Equations (16)–(18).
BOI Number   of   businesses * = { ( Number   of   businesses 1 Voivodeship _ area _ 1 ) 1 , ( Number   of   businesses Voivodeship _ area _ 2 ) 2 , ,   ( Number   of   businesses Voivodeship _ area _ i ) i }
BOI = { ( BOI 1 BOI Number   of   businesses max ) 1 , ( BOI 2 BOI Number   of   businesses max ) 2 , ,   ( BOI i BOI Number   of   businesses max ) i }
where BOI Number   of   businesses max   BOI Number   of   businesses i
BOI = { BOI 1 ,   BOI 2 ,   ,   BOI i }
The IWRU for kayaking in Polish voivodeships was calculated based on the number of rivers with kayaking trails (19). The results were normalized based on the maximum values in this set.
IWRU = { ( WRU 1 WRU max ) 1 , ( WRU 2 WRU max ) 2 , ,   ( WRU i WRU max ) i }
where WRU max WRU i
IWRU = { IWRU 1 ,   IWRU 2 ,   ,   IWRU i }
The values of GPI, BOI and IWRU in each voivodeship were compared to determine the presence of correlations, and to evaluate whether the development of active (kayaking) tourism in different Polish regions (voivodeships) is sustainable.
The second approach involved the assumption that water resources, in particular river length, can be expected to play the most important role in the assessment of potential kayaking tour operations. Three indicators were calculated for each Polish voivodeship based on selected data from Table 1.
  • RLI: the river length in voivodeships (21) and (22);
  • EI: the number of businesses registered in the CEIDG per unit length of watercourses in voivodeships (23) and (24);
  • II: the investment indicator (25)–(26).
The investment indicator (II) (25) and (26) denotes the extent to which the geographic potential of voivodeships is harnessed by local businesses operating on the outdoor tourism market.
RlI = { ( River   length ) n = 1 , 2 ,   , 17 normalization )   } = { rl 1 ( rl ) max ,   rl 2 ( rl ) max ,   rl 3 ( rl ) max ,   , rl i ( rl ) max }
i = 1, 2, 3, …, 17 - voivodeship ID,
where ( rl ) max   rl i
RlI = { RlI 1 ,   RlI 2 ,   RlI 3 , ,   RlI 17 }
EI = { ( Number   of   businesses / river   length ) n = 1 , 2 , 3 ,   , 17 normalization } = { ( E 1 / rl 1 ) ( E rl ) max ,   ( E 2 / rl 2 ) ( E rl ) max ,   ( ( E 3 / rl 3 ) ( E rl ) max ,   , ( E 17 / rl 17 ) ( E rl ) max }
Ei = number of businesses registered in the ith voivodeship,
where ( E rl ) max   E i / rl i .
EI = { EI 1 ,   EI 2 ,   EI 3 , ,   EI 17 }
II = { EI 1 RlI 1 ,   EI 2 RlI 2 , EI 3 RlI 3 , , EI 17 RlI 17 }
II = { II 1 ,   II 2 ,   II 3 ,   ,   II 17 } .
Low values of the II (investment indicator) suggest that few people use the potential of watercourses for tourism-related business activities.

3. Determination of the Number of Rivers Where Kayaking Tours Are Organized

3.1. Travel Book Publishers and Kayaking Travel Guides

In the first stage of the study, travel guides and maps in printed and electronic format were analyzed to collect data about the number of rivers where kayaking tours are organized. Kayaking travel guides were searched on the websites of travel book publishers. The websites of five companies that publish active tourism guides were analyzed: Ciekawe Miejsca, Pascal, Galileo, Empik and ExpressMap Polska (Table 2). Most of the travel guides on offer were dedicated to mountaineering, hiking and cycling. Additional search words had to be used to find kayaking travel guides. The search results (as of 25 May 2021) are presented in Table 2.
The data in Table 2 indicate that kayaking tourism is not extensively promoted in Poland. It should be noted that the travel guides published by Ciekawe Miejsca promoted kayaking trails mainly in the voivodeship of Masovia. Ten guide books focusing on the Warsaw region (Masovia) described kayaking trails on 34 rivers [20,21,22]. Other travel guides covered kayaking trails on 22 rivers in Podlasie voivodeship [23], as well as trails on five rivers in Pomerania. Ciekawe Miejsca recently launched a new series entitled Kayaking Trails in Poland, and nine travel guides in this series were published in 2021 [24,25]. The travel guides released by the remaining publishers focused on other types of tourist activities. The analysis revealed that printed travel guides described kayaking trails on a total of 64 Polish rivers. A review of online archival resources also revealed several kayaking travel guides published in previous years [26,27,28,29,30,31,32].

3.2. Community Websites Created by Polish Kayaking Enthusiasts

In addition to kayaking travel guides, information about kayaking trips and trails is also available on the websites of tourist and sports organizations. In Poland, there are at least 105 kayaking tour operators (clubs, circles, associations) affiliated with the Kayaking Tourism Committee of the Polish Tourist and Sightseeing Society (PTTK), Tourism and Recreation Committee of the Polish Canoe Federation (PZK) and the Association of Canoeing Instructors and Trainers (SIiTK) [33]. These providers organize kayaking tours as part of their statutory operations. Each year, a list of kayaking activities and trips planned by these organizations is published online in the Kayaking Directory (https://pzkaj.pl/dane/turystyka/Informator_Kajakarza_2021.pdf, accessed on 20 August 2022).
The number of kayaking tour operators and kayaking events organized in recent years is presented in Table 3. In 2021, 94 operators organized 153 kayaking events on 98 rivers and in 22 other sites (lakes, canals and the Baltic Sea) (Kayaking Guide 2021). In 2022, kayaking events were planned in a total of 120 locations including 89 rivers, 19 lakes and nine other sites (canals, whitewater courses and lagoons). These data were included in the developed database. A community website dedicated to kayaking has been created as a joint initiative of PZK, PTTK and SIiTK at http://kajak.org.pl (accessed on 1 January 2020). The website presents kayaking trails and provides useful information for tour organizers and the participants (http://kajak.org.pl/splywww/, accessed on 21 August 2022) (Figure 1). A total of 156 kayaking trails on 142 rivers are described on the website.
Kayaking tour operators and equipment rentals can register in the database available on the website. To date, 397 businesses, including 76 kayak manufacturers and 41 kayaking gear stores, have registered on the website. The locations of kayaking trails and the registered businesses were compared on a map, and the analysis revealed an absence of spatial correlations between these two datasets. Businesses operating in the water tourism sector (397) are not located in the proximity of the identified kayaking trails (157), which suggests that the presented data are incomplete and lack cohesion. A detailed analysis of the website revealed that most of the presented trails were described by kayaking enthusiasts from western Poland (www.kajaki.org.pl, accessed on 21 August 2022). Therefore, the existing database of kayaking trails should be expanded by conducting additional research and reviewing online resources dedicated to kayaking.

3.3. Identification of Navigable Rivers Where Kayaking Tours Are Organized

In Poland, kayaking tours are organized mainly by private operators. These businesses are listed in official databases, and they also advertise their services online. Kayaking tour operators were searched in Google maps, and their registered addresses were identified based on location markers. These businesses advertise kayaking tours and present detailed information about kayaking trails on their websites. Tour participants post photographs and video footage from their kayaking trips on YouTube, which is also a good source of information about kayaking activities in Poland. Navigable rivers where kayaking tours are organized were catalogued based on an analysis of these websites and user posts. A total of 207 rivers were catalogued.
The study demonstrated that information about kayaking trails and navigable rivers is highly fragmented. A list of navigable rivers where kayaking tours are organized was developed based on a review of kayaking travel guides, websites of kayaking tour organizers and equipment rentals, the kayaking community site, as well as the results of own study. The datasets were merged with the use of GIS tools based on the names of the listed rivers, and the resources of the National Register of Geographic Names (PRNG). Vector images (Figure 2) depicting the location of navigable rivers in subsets of kayaking trails were generated. The created vector images contained sets of points distributed at intervals of 4 km along selected watercourses. A comparison of the first two data sources revealed differences in the location of businesses advertising kayaking tours and kayaking trails. The presented analysis produced more cohesive results. These findings indicate that the development of the kayaking sector should be monitored to generate more reliable data (Table 4).
Based on the generated catalog of 260 rivers, the number of rivers in each Polish voivodeship, including rivers where kayaking tours are organized, is presented in Table 5. These data were used for the cartographic visualization of the potential of rivers for the development of kayaking tourism in Poland (Figure 3a), rivers where kayaking tours are organized (Figure 3b) and the percentage of rivers in Polish voivodeships that are utilized for kayaking (Figure 3c).
On average, kayaking tours are organized on 42% of Polish rivers (Table 5). It should be noted that the percentage of rivers utilized for kayaking exceeds 50%, or even approaches 65% in some regions (voivodeships).

4. Geographic Potential Indicator, Business Opportunity Indicator and the Indicator of Water Resource Utilization for Active Tourism in Polish Voivodeships

4.1. Indicators Calculated per Unit of Reference Surface

The values of GPI, BOI (based on CEIDG data) and IWRU for kayaking in Polish voivodeships were calculated based on the data presented in Table 1, and the methods described in (1)–(18). The values of the above indicators are shown in Table 6 and Table 7, and in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The data are presented on thematic maps in Figure 6.
The calculated values of the proposed indicators (Table 6) were used to determine the presence of correlations between the GPI, IWRU and BOI. The values of the correlation coefficients are very low, non-significant and varied. The coefficient of correlation between GPI and IWRU is 0.28, the coefficient of correlation between GPI and BOI is 0.06, and the coefficient of correlation between IWRU and BOI is 0.35. The values of GPI, IWRU and BOI in voivodeships are presented graphically in Figure 5.
In Figure 5, the lines presenting the values of IWRU and BOI in Polish voivodeships have fairly similar shapes, which correspond to the value of the correlation coefficient of 0.35. The values of IWRU exceeded BOI values in all regions, except Silesia.

4.2. Indicators Taking into Account the Length of Rivers

Entrepreneurship indicators, river potential indicators and investment indicators for businesses registered in the CEIDG under PKD code 7721Z are presented in Table 8 and Figure 7, taking into account the length of rivers. The results indicated that the geographic potential of Polish regions was most effectively harnessed by local businesses operating on the outdoor tourism market (kayaking tour organizers) in north-western Poland, as well as in central-eastern Poland. Low values of the investment indicator (II) in central-western Poland suggest that unlike businesses and associations registered in the KRS [7] (Figure 1 and Figure 7), tourism operators registered in the CEIDG are reluctant to capitalize on the natural potential of their respective regions.

5. Discussion

The results of the research conducted with the first method, where the values presented in Table 1 were converted to the area of the reference unit (voivodeship), suggest that the local entrepreneurs have not fully tapped into the region’s vast geographic potential for active tourism development. The line presenting GPI values diverges from the lines depicting the values of IWRU and BOI (Figure 5 and Figure 6), which indicates that geographic potential is only one of the factors that drive the growth of the kayaking sector. In Małopolska, all three indicators were characterized by similar values, which points to sustainable tourism development that makes optimal use of the region’s geographic potential and the availability of navigable rivers. In Silesia, the value of BOI exceeded the values of IWRU and GPI, which indicates that this region abounds in businesses who meet local tourist needs. In Warmia-Masuria, the value of GPI was considerably higher than the values of BOI and IWRU. Similar observations were made in Lubusz, Pomerania and West Pomerania. As demonstrated by the high values of IWRU in Lower Silesia, Masovia, Opole and Świętokrzyskie, a high percentage of rivers in these regions are utilized for kayaking, although the values of GPI and BOI are relatively low. A comparison of the data presented in Figure 4 indicates that the development of kayaking tourism is determined by various factors, not only specific geographical features in a given region.
The results of the research conducted with the second method, where the values were calculated based on river potential in voivodeships, revealed that Świętokrzyskie, West Pomerania, Pomerania, Małopolska and Masovia fully utilize their water potential in active tourism. The voivodeships of western-central Poland have high water potential, but the number of tourism operators registered in the CEIDG is low in these voivodeships. Lower Silesia, Opole and Lubusz are characterized by low values of the EI, but a high percentage of rivers in these voivodeships are utilized for kayaking (Figure 3). This indicates that in these regions, kayaking tours are organized primarily by clubs, circles and associations affiliated with the PTTK, as confirmed by the information available on the community website dedicated to kayaking (Figure 2b).
The results of this study indicate that geographical features are not the only factors that drive the development of active tourism (kayaking). This suggests that there are considerable opportunities for business development in the Polish kayaking sector.

6. Conclusions

This study aimed to determine the number of Polish rivers where kayaking tours are organized. Kayaking tour operators and equipment rentals are not actively promoted by the Polish Tourism Organization (PTO) [7,33]. Travel guides for active recreation enthusiasts also place greater emphasis on mountaineering, hiking and cycling compared to kayaking. The only notable exception is the Ciekawe Miejsca publishing house that has recently launched a series of travel guides dedicated to kayaking trails in Masovia.
Online resources are the most abundant sources of information about kayaking tourism. The websites of kayaking tour operators and equipment rentals promote active tourism, not only by advertising their services, but also by describing kayaking trails in different Polish regions.
The results of this study indicate that the popularity of kayaking is on the rise in Poland and that this form of active recreation presents numerous opportunities for local entrepreneurs. The growth of the Polish kayaking sector is driven not only by businesses that advertise their services online and search for new trails amidst increasing competition, but also by tourists, in particular hard tourism fans, who are passionate about discovering previously untraveled rivers. Adventure tourism enthusiasts describe new trails, report on their experiences online and encourage others to visit these sites [10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19].
The calculated values of GPI, BOI, IWRU and EI, RI, II in Polish regions (voivodeships) suggest that active tourism services are developing regardless of the geographic potential of a given region. It can be hypothesized that they are developing most rapidly in the vicinity of large urban areas. The above could be attributed to the fact that many urban dwellers participate in kayaking tours during weekends. Further research is needed to validate these observations.

Funding

This study was financed as part of a statutory research project of the Faculty of Geoengineering of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland, entitled “Geoinformation from the theoretical, analytical and practical perspective” (No. 29.610.008-110_timeline: 2020–2022).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank public institutions (the Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography, the Ministry of Justice, and the Ministry of Development and Technology) for providing access to public databases.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Margaryana, L.; Fredmanb, P. Bridging outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism in a commercial context: Insights from the Swedish service providers. J. Outdoor Recreat. Tour. 2017, 17, 84–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Patterson, I.; Pan, R. The motivations of baby boomers to participate in adventure tourism and the implications for adventure. Ann. Leis. Res. 2007, 10, 26–53. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Hall, C.M. Tourism and Politics: Policy, Power and Place; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1994. [Google Scholar]
  4. Janowski, I.; Gardiner, S.; Kwek, A. Dimensions of adventure tourism. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2021, 37, 100776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Aasetre, J.; Gundersen, V. Outdoor recreation research: Different approaches, different values? Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift. Nor. J. Geogr. 2012, 66, 193–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Lewandowicz, E. Spatial conflicts in areas particularly attractive to tourists. In Proceedings of the 18th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geo Conferences SGEM 2018, Albena, Bulgaria, 2–8 July 2018; Conference Proceedings, Informatics, Geoinformatics and Remote Sensing Iss. 2.3: Photogrammetry and Remonte Sensing, Cartography and GIS. STEF92 Technology Ltd.: Albena, Bulgaria, 2018; Volume 18, pp. 575–582. Available online: https://www.sgem.org/index.php/jresearch-article?citekey=Lewandowicz201811575582 (accessed on 1 January 2021).
  7. Lewandowicz, E.; Bac-Bronowicz, J. Outdoor tourism, kayaking, tourism potential and tourism operations in central- eastern Europe: The case of Poland. GeoJournal Tour. Geosites 2022, 40, 232–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. González-Morcillo, S.; Horrach-Rosselló, P.; Valero-Sierra, O.; Mulet-Forteza, C. Forgotten effects of active tourism activities in Spain on sustainable development dimensions. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2022, 1–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Elmo, G.C.; Arcese, G.; Valeri, M.; Poponi, S.; Pacchera, F. Sustainability in Tourism as an Innovation Driver: An Analysis of Family Business Reality. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Gössling, S.; Hall, C.M.; Skott, D. Tourism and Water; Channel View Publications: Toronto, ON, Canada, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  11. Gössling, S.; Peeters, P.; Hall, C.M.; Ceron, P.P.; Dubois, G.; Lehmann, L.V.; Scott, D. Tourism and water use: Supply, demand, and security. An international review. Tour. Manag. 2012, 33, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Folgado-Fernández, J.; Di-Clemente, E.; Mogollón, J.; Campón-Cerro, A. Water Tourism: A New Strategy for the Sustainable Management of Water-Based Ecosystems and Landscapes in Extremadura (Spain). Land 2018, 8, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Cholewa, J. The Factors Deciding about the Popularity of Kayaking Tourism on Industrial Areas. In Advances in Tourism, Technology and Smart Systems; Springer: Singapore, 2020; pp. 395–404. [Google Scholar]
  14. Rafalska, B.; Cholewa, J.; Tomik, R. Czynniki determinujące uprawianie turystyki kajakowej na terenie województwa śląskiego. Folia Turistica 2017, 45, 64–78. Available online: http://folia-turistica.awf.krakow.pl/attachments/article/430/FT_45_2017.pdf#page=64 (accessed on 28 June 2022). [CrossRef]
  15. Mazur, L. Locja Kajakowa; PZK: Warszawa, Poland, 1997. [Google Scholar]
  16. Gössling, S.; Scott, D.; Hall, C.M. Pandemics, tourism and global change: A rapid assessment of COVID-19. J. Sustain. Tour. 2021, 29, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Szromek, A. Pomiar Funkcji Turystycznej Obszarów za Pomocą Wskaźników Funkcji Turystycznej na Przykładzie Obszarów Państw Europejskich, (The Measurement of Tourism Function of Areas Using Indicators of the Tourism Function on the Example of Areas of European Countries); nr 132-Zastosowania Metod Matematycznych w Ekonomii i Zarządzaniu; Studia Ekonomiczne/Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Katowicach: Katowice, Poland, 2013; pp. 91–103. [Google Scholar]
  18. Szromek, A. Wskaźniki Funkcji Turystycznej. Koncepcja Wskaźnika Funkcji Turystycznej i Uzdrowiskowej. (Tourism Function Indicators. The Concept of Tourism and Health Resort Function); Publishing House of the Silesian University of Technology: Katowice, Poland, 2012; pp. 1–293. ISBN 978-83-7335-916-1. Available online: https://www.ue.katowice.pl/fileadmin/_migrated/content_uploads/8_A.R.Szromek_Pomiar_Funkcji_Turystycznej....pdf (accessed on 28 June 2022). (In Polish)
  19. Grzelak, M.M.; Roszko-Wójtowicz, E. Tourist attractiveness of voivodeships in Poland in the light of selected indicators: A dynamic approach. Econ. Ann. 2020, 183, 161–177. [Google Scholar]
  20. Jagiełło, J. Bzura i Jej Dopływy; Encyklopedia Rzek Polski Wydawnictwo (Ciekawe Miejsca): Warsaw, Poland, 2013; p. 134, Indeks 13382476. [Google Scholar]
  21. Jagiełło, J. Jeziorka, Świder, Wilga, Okrzejka Oraz ich Dopływy; Wydawnictwo (Ciekawe Miejsca): Warsaw, Poland, 2014; p. 90. [Google Scholar]
  22. Jagiełło, J. Świder Mienia Jagodzianka. Przewodnik kajakowy; Wydawnictwo (Ciekawe Miejsca): Warsaw, Poland, 2019; p. 70. [Google Scholar]
  23. Darmichwał, T.; Jagiełło, J.; Krajewski, T.A. Poland-Kajakiem po Suwalszczyźnie. Przewodnik. Canoeing in the Suwałki Region; Guide Warszawa (Wydawnictwo Ciekawe Miejsca): Warsaw, Poland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  24. Jagiełło, J.; Mazur, M. Przewodnik Kajakowy, Rawka. (Kayak Guide. Rawka); Wydawnictwo (Ciekawe Miejsca): Warsaw, Poland, 2021. [Google Scholar]
  25. Mazur, M.; Jagieło, J. Przewodnik Kajakowy, Świder (Kayak Guide. Świder); Wydawnictwo CM: Warsaw, Poland, 2021; ISBN 9788366371033. [Google Scholar]
  26. Wrześniowski, Z. Kajakiem po Wodach Pomorza Zachodniego. (By Kayak in the Waters of Western Pomerania); Warszawa (Wydawnictwo Sport i Turystyka): Warsaw, Poland, 1955. [Google Scholar]
  27. Lityński, M.; Goleń, J. Drwęca Oraz Wel i Pojezierze Brodnickie. Przewodnik Kajakowy, (Drwęca and Wel and Brodnica Lake District. Kayak Guide); Wydawnictwo (Rewasz): Pruszków, Poland, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  28. Kwaczonek, M. Czarna Hańcza-Przewodnik dla Kajakarzy (Hańcza-Guide for Canoeists); Wydawnictwo (Pascal): Bielsko-Biała, Poland, 2003; p. 32. [Google Scholar]
  29. Kwaczonek, M. Przewodnik po Rzekach Krutyni i Czarnej Hańczy Guide to the Krutynia and Czarna Hańcza Rivers); Pascal: Bielsko-Biała, Poland, 2017; Kod EAN: 9788381030182. [Google Scholar]
  30. Kwaczonek, M. Kajakiem po Krutyni, Przewodnik dla Aktywnych (Kayaking in Krutynia, Guide for Active People); Wydawnictwo Pascal: Bielsko-Biała, Poland, 2017; ISBN 978-83-8103-019-9. [Google Scholar]
  31. Kwaczonek, M. Kajakiem po Czarnej Hańczy, Przewodnik dla Aktywnych (Kayaking on Czarna Hańcza, Guide for Active People); Wydawnictwo Pascal: Bielsko-Biała, Poland, 2017; ISBN 978-83-8103-018-2. Available online: http://pascal.pl/seria-dla-aktywnych,15,0.html (accessed on 1 January 2020).
  32. Głowacki, M.; Gomulska, E.; Jaworska, E.; Książek, I.; Kühn, U.; Malinowski, T.; Oliwiak, B. Informator Kajakarza (Kayaker’s Informant); Ministerstwo Sportu i Rekreacji: Warsaw, Poland, 2015; pp. 1–66. Available online: http://kajak.org.pl/dane/images_upload/*j/informator_kajakarza_2015.pdf (accessed on 10 June 2021).
  33. PTO Marketingowa Strategia Polski w Sektorze Turystyki na Lata 2012–2020 (Marketing Strategy of Poland in the Tourism Sector for 2012–2020). 2011. Available online: https://www.pot.gov.pl/pl/o-pot/plany-i-sprawozdania-pot/marketingo (accessed on 12 November 2021).
Figure 1. Selected types of information available on the community website for kayaking enthusiasts: (a) list of kayaking trails; (b) description of the waterway. Source: http://kajak.org.pl (accessed in 20 July 2021).
Figure 1. Selected types of information available on the community website for kayaking enthusiasts: (a) list of kayaking trails; (b) description of the waterway. Source: http://kajak.org.pl (accessed in 20 July 2021).
Sustainability 14 10872 g001
Figure 2. Visualization of the location of rivers where kayaking tours are organized based on various sources: (a) travel guides; (b) website of kayaking organizations; (c) own study; (d) cumulative result.
Figure 2. Visualization of the location of rivers where kayaking tours are organized based on various sources: (a) travel guides; (b) website of kayaking organizations; (c) own study; (d) cumulative result.
Sustainability 14 10872 g002aSustainability 14 10872 g002b
Figure 3. Water resources in Poland: (a) potential of rivers for the development of kayaking tourism; (b) rivers where kayaking tours are organized: (c) percentage of rivers in Polish voivodeships that are utilized for kayaking.
Figure 3. Water resources in Poland: (a) potential of rivers for the development of kayaking tourism; (b) rivers where kayaking tours are organized: (c) percentage of rivers in Polish voivodeships that are utilized for kayaking.
Sustainability 14 10872 g003
Figure 4. Indicators of geographic potential in subsets and the business opportunity indicator.
Figure 4. Indicators of geographic potential in subsets and the business opportunity indicator.
Sustainability 14 10872 g004
Figure 5. Indicators describing kayaking activities in Polish voivodeships.
Figure 5. Indicators describing kayaking activities in Polish voivodeships.
Sustainability 14 10872 g005
Figure 6. Entrepreneurship indicators calculated based on the geographic potential of Polish voivodeships. The values of the geographic potential indicator (GPI) and the business opportunity indicator (BOI) are presented on thematic maps. The values of the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU) are presented on cartograms in three categories: high (1.0–0.8), moderate (0.8–0.6) and low (0.6–0.4), based on Table 6 data.
Figure 6. Entrepreneurship indicators calculated based on the geographic potential of Polish voivodeships. The values of the geographic potential indicator (GPI) and the business opportunity indicator (BOI) are presented on thematic maps. The values of the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU) are presented on cartograms in three categories: high (1.0–0.8), moderate (0.8–0.6) and low (0.6–0.4), based on Table 6 data.
Sustainability 14 10872 g006
Figure 7. Entrepreneurship indicators calculated based on the river potential of Polish voivodeships. The values of the entrepreneurship indicator (EI) and the river potential indicator (RlI) are presented on thematic maps. The values of the investment indicator (II) are presented on cartograms in three categories: high (1.2–0.8), moderate (0.8–0.7) and low (0.5–0.2), based on Table 7 data. The results shown in Figure 7 are presented in graphical form in Figure 8.
Figure 7. Entrepreneurship indicators calculated based on the river potential of Polish voivodeships. The values of the entrepreneurship indicator (EI) and the river potential indicator (RlI) are presented on thematic maps. The values of the investment indicator (II) are presented on cartograms in three categories: high (1.2–0.8), moderate (0.8–0.7) and low (0.5–0.2), based on Table 7 data. The results shown in Figure 7 are presented in graphical form in Figure 8.
Sustainability 14 10872 g007
Figure 8. Entrepreneurship indicator (EI) calculated based on the river potential of Polish voivodeships expressed as the river potential indicator (RI).
Figure 8. Entrepreneurship indicator (EI) calculated based on the river potential of Polish voivodeships expressed as the river potential indicator (RI).
Sustainability 14 10872 g008
Table 1. Potential of Polish voivodeships for the development of water (kayaking) tourism and the number of active tourism operators registered in the Central Register and Information on Economic Activity (CEIDG).
Table 1. Potential of Polish voivodeships for the development of water (kayaking) tourism and the number of active tourism operators registered in the Central Register and Information on Economic Activity (CEIDG).
VoivodeshipVoivodeship Area
[km2]
Forest Area [km2]Area of Standing Water Bodies
[km2]
Length of Rivers
[km]
Number of RiversNumber of Businesses Registered in CEIDG
Lower Silesia19,936554915629701094038
Kuyavia-Pomerania17,94841744743084852090
Lublin25,13456343622935931109
Lubusz13,99070292522475971629
Łódź18,1943833982168662122
Małopolska15,16643133052216854456
Masovia35,529790340140941459974
Opole94002496182128360938
Podkarpacie17,844664228026561072052
Podlasie20,19360402442394891579
Pomerania18,305664587235661275071
Silesia12,31740341571684596070
Świętokrzyskie11,69732242351466521110
Warmia-Masuria24,1517251108848311403101
Wielkopolska29,797764240248581434531
West Pomerania22,896821775138671453519
Table 2. Kayaking travel guides available on the Polish market.
Table 2. Kayaking travel guides available on the Polish market.
PublisherCategoryTotal Number of Active Tourism GuidesNumber of Kayaking GuidesNumber of Described Kayaking Trails on Rivers
1Ciekawe MiejscaKayaking trails in Poland871661
2Pascal Travel guides for adventure seekers 933
3Galileo Maps for active tourists1534
4Empik 4655
5ExpressMap Polska Sp. z o.o.Travel maps1800
TOTAL Without repeats64
Table 3. Kayaking events organized by tour operators based on the information presented in annual kayaking directories. Source: Kayaking Directories for 2014–2022.
Table 3. Kayaking events organized by tour operators based on the information presented in annual kayaking directories. Source: Kayaking Directories for 2014–2022.
YearNumber of Kayaking Tour OperatorsNumber of Kayaking Events
202289150
202194153
202094163
201994160
201895155
2017105164
2016101158
2015101165
2014105165
Table 4. Number of rivers where kayaking tours are organized, based on various sources of data.
Table 4. Number of rivers where kayaking tours are organized, based on various sources of data.
Data SourceNumber of Catalogued Kayaking Trails
Kayaking travel guides64
Website of kayaking organizations 142
Own study207
Cumulative result260
Table 5. Number and percentage of rivers in Polish voivodeships where kayaking tours are organized, and the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU).
Table 5. Number and percentage of rivers in Polish voivodeships where kayaking tours are organized, and the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU).
VoivodeshipNumber of RiversNumber of Rivers with Kayaking ToursPercentage of Rivers with Kayaking Tours [%]IWRU
Lower Silesia10971651.00
Kuyavia-Pomerania8531360.55
Lublin9324260.40
Lubusz9740410.63
Łódź6632480.74
Małopolska8537440.68
Masovia14575520.80
Opole6039651.00
Podkarpacie10735330.51
Podlasie8942470.72
Pomerania12747370.57
Silesia5935590.91
Świętokrzyskie5227520.80
Warmia-Masuria14051360.55
Wielkopolska14340280.43
West Pomerania14548330.51
Table 6. Values of the geographical potential indicator (GPI) in subsets (2, 5, 9, 18) and the business opportunity indicator (BOI).
Table 6. Values of the geographical potential indicator (GPI) in subsets (2, 5, 9, 18) and the business opportunity indicator (BOI).
VoivodeshipGPIforestGPIwaterGPIiver_lengthGPInumber of riversBOI
Lower Silesia0.60.20.70.80.4
Kuyavia-Pomerania0.50.60.90.70.2
Lublin0.40.30.60.50.1
Lubusz1.00.40.91.00.2
Łódź0.40.10.60.50.2
Małopolska0.60.40.70.80.6
Masovia0.40.20.60.60.6
Opole0.50.40.70.90.2
Podkarpacie0.70.30.70.90.2
Podlasie0.60.30.60.60.2
Pomerania0.71.01.01.00.6
Silesia0.70.30.70.71.0
Świętokrzyskie0.50.40.60.60.2
Warmia-Masuria0.60.91.00.80.3
Wielkopolska0.50.30.80.70.3
West Pomerania0.70.70.80.90.3
Table 7. Values of the geographic potential indicator (GPI), the business opportunity indicator (BOI) and the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU) for kayaking in Polish voivodeships.
Table 7. Values of the geographic potential indicator (GPI), the business opportunity indicator (BOI) and the indicator of water resource utilization (IWRU) for kayaking in Polish voivodeships.
VoivodeshipGPIIWRUBOI
Lower Silesia0.611.000.41
Kuyavia-Pomerania0.690.550.24
Lublin0.500.400.09
Lubusz0.880.630.24
Łódź0.450.740.24
Małopolska0.680.680.60
Masovia0.500.800.57
Opole0.691.000.20
Podkarpacie0.720.510.23
Podlasie0.560.720.16
Pomerania1.000.570.56
Silesia0.620.911.00
Świętokrzyskie0.610.800.19
Warmia-Masuria0.910.550.26
Wielkopolska0.620.430.31
West Pomerania0.850.510.31
Table 8. Entrepreneurship indicators, river potential indicators and investment indicators for businesses registered in the CEIDG under PKD code 7721Z (data from this table are additionally presented graphically in Figure 7).
Table 8. Entrepreneurship indicators, river potential indicators and investment indicators for businesses registered in the CEIDG under PKD code 7721Z (data from this table are additionally presented graphically in Figure 7).
VoivodeshipEntrepreneurship Indicator
(EI)
(1)
River Potential Indicator (RI)
(2)
Investment Indicator (II) II = EI/RlI
(3)
Lower Silesia0.360.740.49
Kuyavia-Pomerania0.260.860.30
Lublin0.290.580.50
Lubusz0.280.880.31
Łódź0.270.600.45
Małopolska0.690.730.95
Masovia0.570.580.99
Opole0.270.680.39
Podkarpacie0.510.740.69
Podlasie0.360.590.60
Pomerania0.970.971.00
Silesia0.510.680.74
Świętokrzyskie0.580.630.93
Warmia-Masuria0.741.000.74
Wielkopolska0.200.820.24
West Pomerania1.000.841.18
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Lewandowicz, E. Indicators of Geographic Potential and Business Opportunities for the Development of Active Tourism: Kayaking in Poland. Sustainability 2022, 14, 10872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710872

AMA Style

Lewandowicz E. Indicators of Geographic Potential and Business Opportunities for the Development of Active Tourism: Kayaking in Poland. Sustainability. 2022; 14(17):10872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710872

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lewandowicz, Elżbieta. 2022. "Indicators of Geographic Potential and Business Opportunities for the Development of Active Tourism: Kayaking in Poland" Sustainability 14, no. 17: 10872. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710872

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop