From Organic Wastes and Hydrocarbons Pollutants to Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Bioconversion by Terrestrial and Marine Bacteria
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Bioconversion of Organic Wastes to PHA
2.1. Bioprocess for PHA Production from Terrestrial Bacterial Strains
2.1.1. Role of the “Feast and Famine Regime” in MMC-PHA Production from Waste Feedstock
2.1.2. Terrestrial PHA-Accumulating Bacteria in Open Mixed Culture
Main Microorganisms | Feedstock | Operating Parameters | Biomass PHA Content (wt%) and PHA Composition (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Thauera 48.9%, Hypomonas 3.9%, Aquimonas 1.8% | HAc rich wastewater (synthetic) | HRT = 2 d SRT = 10 d OLR ≈ 1.5 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 100 wt% | [70] |
Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus (3.5%) Thauera (84%) | fermented sewage sludge/wet air oxidation of sewage sludge: HAc 2734 mg/L, HPr 460 mg/L | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4 d | 41% gPHA/gVSS; 3HB/3HV: 77/23 wt% | [71] |
Rhodobacter and Roseobacter 20–50%, Amaricoccus 20–50%, Paracoccus 5–20%, Zoogloea 20–50%, Plasticicumulans 5–20% | sewage sludge and fermented fruit waste: HLac 0.05 g/gCODSOL, HAc 0.95, HPr 0.07, EtOH 0.48, HBut 2.25, HVal 0.17, HCap 9.97. | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4 d OLR = 3 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV/3HH: 33/1/66 wt% | [42] |
Paracoccus up to 87.2%, Lampopredia up to 33.0%, Rhodobacteraceae up to 21.7%, Rhizobiales Incertae Sedis up to 18.5%, Amaricoccus up to 9.6%, Thiothrix up to 14.9%, Shinella up to 10%, Leucobacter up to 10.5%, Paracoccus up to 9.6%, Gemmobacter up to 10.7% | fermented fruit waste: HLac 2%, HAc 31%, HPr 13%, EtOH 9%, HBut 68%, HVal 12%. | HRT = 2 d SRT = 2–4 d OLR = 2–14 gCOD/(L d) | 55–75% gPHA/gVSS 3HB/3HV: 84–87/13–16 wt% | [52] |
Paracoccus and Rhodobacter (up to 43%) | hardwood sulfite spent liquor | HRT = 1 d SRT = 5 d OLR = 17 gCOD/(L d) | 10% PHA/VSS (molar) - | [72] |
Acidovorax 16.9%, Alcaligenes 13.0%, Paracoccus, Rhodobacter, Rhizobium 16.3%, Comamonas (up to 43.3%) | fermented hardwood spent sulfite liquor: HAc/HPr/HBut/HLac/HVal = 62:18:13:10:1 | HRT = 1–2 d SRT = 5 d OLR = 2–7 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 62–83/17–38 wt% | [73] |
Hydrogenophaga, Thauera, Pseudoxanthomonas, Flavobacterium, Paracoccus, Leifsonia, Exiguobacterium, Rhodobacter | fermented food waste and sewage sludge | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 3–6 gCOD/(L d) | 45–55% gPHA/gVSS 3HB/3HV: 90/10 wt% | [49] |
Acidovorax and Hydrogenophaga (52–79%), Thauera and Azoarcus (12%) | fermented food waste: HAc 21.5%, HBut 38.0%, HPr 12.7%, HVal 11.6%, HCap 10.0% | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 2.5 gCOD/(L d) | 40–45% gPHA/gVSS 3HB/3HV: 88/12 wt% | [48] |
Allorhizobium, Neorhizobium, Pararhizobium, Rhizobium (up to 38.3%); Acidivorax, Aquimonas, Comamonas, Hydrogenophaga, Ramlibacter, Zooglea (up to 35.3%) | fermented food waste: HAc 23%, HPr 19%, HBut 46% (COD basin) | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 3.5 gCOD/(L d) | 40–45% gPHA/gVSS 3HB/3HV: 90/10 wt% | [74] |
Clostridium (29%), Pseudomonaas (8%), Rhodopseudomonas (5%) | synthetic VFA: 3 g/L HAc and 0.5 g/L HBut | OLR = 2 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 87/13 wt% | [75] |
Enterobacter and Pseudomonas (66.6%) | synthetic wastewater and glucose | - 3HB/3HV: 76–88/8–21 wt% | [76] | |
Amaricoccus and Thauera from 56.3% to 72.4% | crude glycerol fermentation (90 Cmmol/L): HAc 2.38 Cmmol/L, HPr 12.10 Cmmol/L, HBut 30.52 Cmmol/L. | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 3.7 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 75/25 wt% | [77] |
Zoogloea (10.1%) Zoogloea resiniphila, Dechloromonas (4.45%), Azospira (2.82%) | sodium acetate | HRT = 2 d | 68% gPHA/gVSS | [78] |
Uncultured Rhodocyclaceae | fermented food waste | HRT = 0.7 d SRT = 1 d OLR ≈ 8 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 50/50 wt% | [79] |
Plasticicumulans Acidivorans | fermented paper mill wastewater: VFA/CODSOL 0.72; HAc 37%, HPr 21%, HBut 29%, HVal 16% | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR ≈ 3 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 75/25 wt% | [47] |
Corynebacterium, Xantomonadaceae, Bosea, Amaricoccus, Paracoccus | fermented cheese whey: EtOH 41 mg/L, HAc 52 mg/L, HBu 14.8 mg/L, TOA 294 mg/L | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4–5 d OLR = 2 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 87/13% (molar) | [67] |
Proteobacteria (77.6%), Bacteroidetes (77.6%), Nitrospira (1.75%), Armatimonadetes (1.3%) | fermented paperboard mill wastewater: CODSOL 0.92 g/L; 0.34 g/L VFA | HRT = 1 d SRT = 10 d OLR = 3 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 84–92/8–16 wt% | [80] |
On HAc: Moraxellaceae (12%), Rhodobacteraceae (11.7%), Bacillaceae (11.6%) Flavobacteriaceae (7%), Comamonadaceae (6.7%); On HCap: Moraxellaceae (18%), Rhodobacteraceae (15.4%), Flavobacteriaceae (8.5%), Comamonadaceae (5.6%) | fermented food waste (30 v/v%) and sewage sludge (70 v/v%); VFA up to 29.5 g/L | HRT = 1 d | - 3HB/3HV: 94–97/3–6 wt% | [81] |
(a) Paracoccus 26%, Lactococcus 28%, Enterococcus 15%; (b) Azospirillum 90% | synthtetic hemicellulose hydrolysates: (a) xylose 79.7%, Hac 8.9%; (b) xylose 42%, HAc 50% | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d | (a) 4% gPHA/gVSS (b) 18% gPHA/gVSS - | [82] |
Paracoccus, Comamonas, Azoarcus, Thauera | acidified cooked mussel wastewater (62% gVFA/gCODSOL) | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 1–2 gCOD/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 70–83/17–30 wt% | [83] |
β-Proteobacteria up to 54% | synthetic VFA: 4.8 g COD/L; HAc/Hpr/Hbu = 16/1.5/8 (COD based) | HRT = 2 d SRT = 10 d OLR = 1.2 gCOD/(L d) | 71.4% gPHA/gVSS - | [84] |
(a) fermented molasses: Thauera (33.3%), Azoarcus (64.6%), Paracoccus (15.9%); (b) cheese whey: Paenibacillus (26.5%), Lysinibacillus (13.2%) | (a) fermented molasses: HAc 28%, HPr 35%, HBut 20%, HVal 13%; (b) fermented cheese whey: HAc 60%, HPr 9%, HBut 14%, HVal 6%. | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4 d OLR = 2 gCOD/(L d) | - - | [85] |
Lampropedia, Thauera, Azoarcus, Paracoccus | fermented cheese whey: HAc 41%, HBut 49%, HVal 6%, HPr 4%. | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4 d OLR = 40 Cmmol/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 89–92/8–11 wt% | [86] |
Paracoccus (52.2%), Azoarcus (26%) and Thauera (8%) | synthetic VFA (HAc, HPr, HBut, HVal) | HRT = 1 d SRT = 4 d OLR = 50 Cmmol/(L d) | - 3HB/3HV: 33/67 wt% | [87] |
Hydrogenophaga | fermented food waste and sewage sludge | HRT = 1 d SRT = 1 d OLR = 4 gCOD/(L d) | 45–50% gPHA/gVSS 3HB/3HV: 90/10 wt% | [18] |
Proteobacteria (up to 88.1% HAc-fed), Vibrio up to (94.6% Starch-fed) | landfill leachate 600 mgCOD/L | HRT = 1 d SRT = 5 d | - 3HB/3HV: 93/7 wt% | [88] |
2.2. Marine Strains PHA-Producers
2.3. Known Metabolic Pathways for PHA Production from Organic Substrates
3. Bioconversion of Hydrocarbons to PHA by Terrestrial and Marine Bacteria
Microorganism | PHA Produced | Carbon Source Used | Isolation Source | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alcanivorax borkumensis | PHA | Octadecane | Seawater | [144,154] |
Pseudomonas fulva TY16 | mcl-PHAs * | Benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene | Soil | [141] |
Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas sp. and Ralstonia eutropha | mcl-PHA | Phenanthrene, pyrene and fluoranthene | PAH-contaminated site in Ao Tap Lamu, Phang-nga (Thailand) | [155] |
P. putida CA-3 | mcl-PHA | Styrene and phenylacetic acid | Industrial bioreactor | [156] |
Ochrobactrum intermedium | P(3HB) | Oily bilge water | Oily bilge waste contaminated seawater | [145] |
Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b | P(3HB) | Trichloroethylene, methane | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [146,147] |
P. oleovorans ATCC 29347 | PHA | C8-C12 alkanes | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [156] |
Ralstonia eutropha H16 | a blend of P(3HB) and P(3HB-co-3HV) | Plant oils and 3-hydroxyvalerate | Sludge | [151] |
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 47T2 | PHA | Waste frying oil | Waste frying oil | [157] |
P. putida F1 | mcl-PHA | Toluene, benzene, or ethylbenzene | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [140] |
P. putida mt-2 | mcl-PHA | Toluene or p-xylene | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [140] |
Mixed culture of P. putida F1, mt-2, and CA-3 | mcl-PHA | Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, p-xylene, and styrene | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [140] |
P. saccharophila NRRL B-628 | mcl-PHA | Coconut oil, tallow | Terrestrial and aquatic environment | [158] |
Known Pathways for PHA Production from Hydrocarbons
4. Biodegradation of PHA by Marine Bacteria
5. Market Projections for Bio-Plastics
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Strain | Phylum | Isolation Source | PHA Produced | Carbon Source Used |
---|---|---|---|---|
Afifella marina | α-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | nutrient rich medium |
Alcanivorax borkumensis | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater sediments | PHA | sodium acetate |
Alteromonas lipolytica | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | marine broth |
Bacillus cereus MCCB 281 | Firmicutes | seawater | P(3HB-co-3HV) | glycerol |
Bacillus licheniformis MSBN12 | Firmicutes | marine sponge callyspongia diffusa | P(3HB) | palm jaggery |
Bacillus megaterium | Firmicutes | sediment | PHA | glucose |
Bacillus sp. NQ-11/A2, | Firmicutes | sediment | P(3HB) | glucose |
Bacillus thuringiensis | Firmicutes | seashore | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | glucose |
Brevibacterium casei MSI04 | Actinobacteria | marine sponge dendrilla nigra | P(3HB) | starch |
Burkholderia sp. AIU M5M02 | β-Proteobacteria | shallow sea mud | P(3HB) | nitrogen-limiting mineral salt medium mannitol as a carbon source |
Colwellia sp. JAMM-0421 | γ-Proteobacteria | deep sea | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | glucose, fructose, sodium gluconate or soybean oil |
Desulfobacterium autotrophicum | δ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | caproate |
Desulfobotulus sapovorans | δ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | caproate |
Desulfococcus multivorans | δ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | benzoate |
Desulfonema magnum | δ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | benzoate |
Desulfosarcina variabilis | δ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | benzoate |
Dinoreseobacter shibae DFL 12T | α-Proteobacteria | prorocentrum lima | PHA | sodium acetate glucose |
Erythrobacter longus DSMZ 6997 | α-Proteobacteria | enteromorpha linza | PHA | glucose |
Halomonas boliviensis | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | different combinations of carbohydrates and hydrolysed polysaccharides |
Halomonas campisalis | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB-co-3HV), 3.6 mol% 3HV | maltose and yeast extract |
Halomonas halophila | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | hydrolysates of cheese whey, spent coffee grounds, sawdust and corn stover, lignocellulose |
Halomonas hydrothermalis | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | waste frying oil |
Halomonas marina | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB-co-3HV), 12.8 mol% 3HV | glucose yeast extract alkanoic acids (C3–C6) |
Halomonas profundus | γ-Proteobacteria | deep sea hydrothermal vent shrimp | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | acetate, pyruvate, propionate, valerate, octanoate, glucose and glycerol |
Labrenzia alexandrii DFL 11T | α-Proteobacteria | alexandrium lusitanicum | PHA | ASW with 1 g/L peptone and 1 g/L yeast extract |
Marinobacter guineae | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | PHA | nutrient rich medium |
Massilia sp. UMI-21 | β-Proteobacteria | seaweed | PHA | starch, maltotriose, or maltose as a sole carbon source |
Methylarcula marina | α-Proteobacteria | coastal seawater | P(3HB) | starch hydrolysate |
Methylarcula terricola | α-Proteobacteria | coastal sediment | P(3HB) | starch hydrolysate |
Methylobacterium sp. | α-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB) | valeric acid and methanol |
Moritella sp. JCM21335 | γ-Proteobacteria | deep sea | P(3HB-co-3HV) | glucose, fructose, gluconate and plant oils |
Neptunomonas antarctica | γ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB) | bacto tryptone, yeast extract and fructose |
Oceanicola granulosus | α -Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | pentoses, hexoses, oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols, organic acids and amino acids. |
Oceanimonas doudoroffii | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | lignin or several lignin derivatives |
Paracoccus sp. LL1 | α-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | waste cooking oil |
Paracoccus seriniphilus | α-Proteobacteria | marine bryozoan | PHA | peptone–yeast marine medium |
Photobacterium leiognathi 208 | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | peptone, glycerol and valeric acid |
Photobacterium leiognathi 683 | γ-Proteobacteria | fish | P(3HB-co-3HV) | water fish extract followed by peptone, glycerol and valeric acid |
Pseudoalteromonas sp. SM9913 | γ-Proteobacteria | deep sea sediment | P(3HD-co-3HDD) | glucose, decanoic acid, or olive oil |
Pseudomonas guezennei | γ-Proteobacteria | marine microbial mat | P(3HO-co-3HD) ** | glucose |
Rhodovulum euryhalinum | α-Proteobacteria | seawater | PHA | malate, pyruvate and acetate |
Roseobacter denitrificans OCh 114 | α-Proteobacteria | enteromorpha linza | PHA | sodium acetate followed by glucose |
Roseospira goensis | α-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB-co-3HV) | sodium acetate |
Saccharophagus degradans ATCC 43961 | γ-Proteobacteria | salt marsh grass | P(3HB) | glucose |
Shewanella basaltis | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | PHA | nutrient rich medium |
Shewanella surugensis JAMM-0036 | γ-Proteobacteria | deep sea | Oligohydroxyalkanoate | glucose, fructose, sodium gluconate, or soybean oil |
Sphingopyxis alaskensis | α-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | waste vegetable oil |
Thiohalocapsa marina | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB) | sodium acetate |
Vibrio azureus BTKB33 | γ-Proteobacteria | sediment | P(3HB) | glucose |
Vibrio harveyi MCCB 284 | γ-Proteobacteria | tunicate phallusia nigra | P(3HB) | glycerol |
Vibrio proteolyticus | γ-Proteobacteria | seashore | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-3HV) | fructose, yeast extract |
Vibrio sp. KN01 | γ-Proteobacteria | seawater | P(3HB), P(3HB-co-5HV-co-3HP) *** | glucose, fructose, gluconate (sodium gluconate), or soybean oil |
Yangia sp. ND199 | α-Proteobacteria | mangrove samples | P(3HB-co-3HV) | glucose |
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Crisafi, F.; Valentino, F.; Micolucci, F.; Denaro, R. From Organic Wastes and Hydrocarbons Pollutants to Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Bioconversion by Terrestrial and Marine Bacteria. Sustainability 2022, 14, 8241. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148241
Crisafi F, Valentino F, Micolucci F, Denaro R. From Organic Wastes and Hydrocarbons Pollutants to Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Bioconversion by Terrestrial and Marine Bacteria. Sustainability. 2022; 14(14):8241. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148241
Chicago/Turabian StyleCrisafi, Francesca, Francesco Valentino, Federico Micolucci, and Renata Denaro. 2022. "From Organic Wastes and Hydrocarbons Pollutants to Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Bioconversion by Terrestrial and Marine Bacteria" Sustainability 14, no. 14: 8241. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148241