Systematic Literature Review on Self-Assessment Inventory for Quality Teaching among Islamic Education Teachers

Abstract

The impact of teaching behavior towards teaching quality and self-assessment has become an emerging drift in education, providing an option for teachers’ development. However, studies on teaching behavior and self-assessment are still scarce, despite their importance in improving education. Thus, this review thoroughly identifies the aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality, as well as the instruments of self-assessment in the teaching profession. Initially, 116 articles published on Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus between 2017 to 2021 were identified, and 10 out of 116 articles were retained for review, based on the exclusion and inclusion criteria. The criteria include the significant findings listed the aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality. Second, the approaches of self-assessment are emphasized in teaching. Third, the reliability of the instruments used for self-assessment mostly achieved the internal consistency criteria. These three criteria imply the importance of self-assessment for quality teaching and teacher development. In general, this review could help teachers cultivate quality teaching behavior and perform reflective practice for their personal development.

1. Introduction

The development of quality and world-class education is the main agenda of the Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). In this regard, teachers’ quality is paramount, as they are directly involved in fulfilling this agenda. Teachers need to achieve the desired level of quality to ensure students obtain maximum learning outcomes. They should diversify their teaching methods, make available teaching aids, extend the content to be taught, be knowledgeable about the ability of students to receive lessons, motivate students, control students’ behavior, group students into groups, and conduct assessments [1].

However, teachers still have a low understanding of the pedagogical concept. As a result, teachers’ e implementation of pedagogical practices is still weak, and they find it challenging to adapt to the latest teaching practices and strategies [2]. Studies have found that teachers’ acceptance of 21st-century learning characteristics is still at a moderate level [3]. Some teachers still adopt teacher-centered teaching, are incompetent in using technology and communication, and find it difficult to embrace new changes [4]. Moreover, observations by The Ministry of Education (2012) reported that some teachers failed to convey their teaching effectively, especially in higher-order thinking skills. According to [5,6,7], there are some Islamic education teachers (IET) who are unable to carry out the teaching process efficiently and effectively.

This issue has caused many researchers to examine the feasibility of self-assessment in improving the quality of a teacher’s teaching. In this light, only a handful of researchers have attempted to compile and manage a systematic literature review on this issue. Based on this shortcoming, this article aims to write a systematic literature review on past studies related to self-assessment for teacher quality improvement, especially for IETs in schools.

1.1. Quality Teacher

The aspect of quality teachers has been extensively discussed in previous studies. In [8,9,10], it was agreed that education development could only be achieved with the excellent and quality of teachers. In the meantime, [11] stated that effective teachers have proven to be a major contributor to student learning in the classroom. Therefore, teachers should acknowledge the criteria of a quality teacher and demonstrate these criteria in their practice.

Teachers act as catalysts for the effectiveness of an education system in producing excellent human capital in the future. Therefore, teachers need to demonstrate high professionalism and quality teaching. Teachers must demonstrate quality criteria and be in accordance with the ethical stipulations of the teaching profession. This could ensure the aspiration to produce moral, knowledgeable, and well-mannered students can be realized.

Quality teaching, by IETs, is related to the concept of mu’allim in Islamic education. Teachers need to show readiness, [12] as reflected by their teaching and learning skills, mastery of knowledge, self-motivation, and positive personality. In this sense, teachers need to possess quality criteria and high professionalism

1.2. Self-Assessment

Teachers need to evaluate their effectiveness to ensure that learning objectives can be achieved optimally, as stated by [13]. Self-assessment or -evaluation is one of the practices of Islamic pedagogy, which serves as a basic value of spiritual training (muhasabah). Its main purpose is to remove barriers between teachers and students, to achieve educational excellence [14]. Ref. [15] stressed that self-assessment is a stimulus for a person to respond, producing a reflection on that assessment. Subsequently, such reflection will motivate teachers to change their practices.

Self-evaluation can be improved in the reflection process to achieve higher job performance and benefit others. Assessment is a must for improving teaching and learning. Hence, teachers need to learn and diversify teaching methods [16]. In the meantime, the process of reflection refers to the knowledge and belief to respond to content. In turn, teachers could encourage reflective practices in the classroom, to train students to think, be enthusiastic, and respond to their learning [17].

1.3. Non-Cognitive Instruments for Islamic Education Teacher

The development of non-cognitive instruments, related to IET, has been done before, such as the IET moral self-assessment instrument by [18]. The instrument was built on the Quran and Sunnah and validated through expert interviews. A study from [19] produced an instrument to assess the level of knowledge of IET, in secondary schools in Selangor, on the use of multimedia in the teaching of Islamic education. The instrument was validated using Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency method. While [20] has produced an instrument that aims to determine the extent of creativity understanding, the level of creativity of IET teaching and the dominant teaching of IET in schools. This study further produced a model of IET teaching creativity.

An effective and quality teacher should emphasize the application of the vision and mission of Islamic education in preparing and facilitating the teaching and learning, specifically in determining the set of induction, approach and implementation, classroom management, teaching aids and assessment and closure, which are essential elements in the effectiveness of teaching and learning [21]. According to [22], effective or quality teachers begin from effective teaching and learning, where a teacher should emphasize four important things in teaching, which involve lesson planning, delivery, evaluation, and encouragement. The success of teachers in transforming students in the form of short and long-term changes is a yardstick to the effectiveness of teaching and learning [23].

From these studies, it can be seen that there is a need to examine assessment instruments for teachers in terms of the level of knowledge, understanding and implementation process in relation to teaching. The abundance of studies on the quality of teachers calls for a systematic literature review to ensure that the findings of previous studies can be collected and better understood. There is a requirement to conduct a systematic literature review (SLR); however, to this day, studies focusing on IETs, especially in secondary schools, are still limited.

1.4. Studies on Instruments for Self-Assessment

Several studies on self-assessment have been conducted, including a study by [24] on applying creativity in teaching and learning. An instrument was developed to survey the perceptions of creativity, the application of the cross-curricular elements (CCE) of creativity in the teaching and learning of Jawi subjects and the self-assessment of creativity. Another study by [25] stressed the need for IET to add knowledge and skills to enhance the practice of creativity in teaching, to achieve the desired quality of teachers. In this regard, a systematic review of the literature (SLR) on self-assessment instruments of teacher teaching quality needs to be done.

An SLR is important because traditional literature reviews often lack transparency, as well as author, recruitment, and publication bias. Due to this issue, SLR is needed to provide a comprehensive, transparent, structured, and systematic review of literature on this topic.

2. Methods

This systematic review follows to the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) method. It consists of four processes, known as identification, screening, eligibility, and included, as shown in Figure 1. Researchers have commonly used PRISMA, due to its comprehensiveness and adaptability to other studies. The aim of this study and the systematic review process is as follows. To find related articles and resources included in this SLR, two main databases, namely Web of Science and Scopus were used.

2.1. Identification

The first step in the systematic review comprises the identification process informed in the PRISMA guidelines. Three databases were chosen, deemed suitable for this study’s aim: Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus. The key terms included in this systematic review were prudently constructed to reflect the constructs that will be reviewed. Words connected to teaching behavior, quality teaching, self-assessment, self-evaluation, self-contemplation, high school teacher, secondary teacher, instrument, and inventory were included.

Table 1. Search string used in this study.

Database	Search String
Web of Science (WoS)	TS = ((self assessment * OR self reflection * OR self evaluation * OR self contemplation) AND (quality teaching OR standard teaching) AND (high school teacher OR secondary teacher) AND (instrument OR inventory OR scale))
Scopus (n = 8)	TITLE-ABS-KEY = ((self assessment * OR self reflection * OR self evaluation * OR self contemplation) AND (quality teaching OR standard teaching) AND (high school teacher OR secondary teacher) AND (instrument OR inventory OR scale))

*: Search String.

below displays the search string used in this study for each database.

2.2. Screening

After identifying articles, the screening process began by excluding duplicate articles appearing in more than one database. One duplicate article was removed during the first screening, resulting in 115 eligible for further screening. These 115 articles were screened based on their title, abstract, and keywords, with the notion that these articles should be related to teaching behavior, teaching quality, and self-assessment. In this screening process, 72 articles were excluded as they are unrelated to the aim of this study. After the exclusion, the remaining 43 articles were screened by inclusion and exclusion criteria, as shown in

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Criterion	Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Timeline	Studies conducted between 2017 and 2021 (5-year timespan)	Studies conducted before 2012
Literature type	Articles from journals	Conference proceedings, review articles, book chapters, reports
Language	The text was written in English	Text not written in English
Subject area	Related to self-assessment and teacher quality	Not related to self-assessment and teacher quality

.

Table 2 presents the Inclusion and exclusion criteria. The first inclusion criterion is that the studies were conducted between 2017 and 2021 (a five-year timespan). Next, the articles should be derived from journals. The included articles should be written in English and are related to self-assessment and teacher quality. After attentive selection, based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 43 potential articles were potentially included for the eligibility process. While they were initially included for the review, conference proceedings and book chapters were excluded because they were less comprehensive [27].

2.3. Eligibility

The remaining 43 articles, retained during the screening process, were subjected to the eligibility process. Eligibility is determined to ensure that all selected articles are truly relevant and can be used in this SLR. This process was done by referring to the title of the article and the selected abstract. If the article is deemed relevant after reading the title and abstract, the article’s methodology, results, and discussion sections were further examined to determine their eligibility.

In this process, a total of 27 articles were removed because their focus was not on teaching quality and self-assessment and rather, focusing on unrelated aspects like teacher integration of information and communication technology, studies conducted on a vocational school, involving other teachers, such as teachers of gifted students, rather than secondary school teachers, duplicated records, duplicate studies, as well as articles containing scoring reviews. A total of 10 articles were selected to go through the next quality assessment process in this process.

2.4. Articles Included

The articles selected for this systematic review revolved around teaching behavior, teaching quality and self-assessment. The studies included are displayed in

Table 3. Summary of the selected studies.

Author	Database	Aim	Samples	Findings
[28]	WoS	To examine the relationship between English teachers’ reflective practices and their self-regulation and their teaching experiences through their self-report questionnaire. English Language Teaching Reflection Inventory (ELTRI) with 5 subscales: practical reflection, cognitive reflection, affective reflection, metacognitive reflection, and critical reflection. Teacher Self-Regulation Scare (TSRS) with 9 factors: goal setting, mastery goal orientation, self-instruction, emotional control, self-evaluation, self-reaction, and help-seeking.	103 English teachers from different senior and junior high schools in Urmia and Nagadeh, West Azerbaijan Iran	There was a positive relationship between the participant teachers’ reflective practice and their self-regulation. There was no significant relationship between the teachers’ self-regulation and their teaching experiences.
[29]	WoS	To examine the reliability and validity of the Classroom Assessment Scoring System-Secondary (CLASS-S) in Finnish classrooms with investigating teacher self-ratings (e.g., efficacy beliefs and teaching-related stress).	Trained observers coded classroom interactions based on video recordings of 46 class teacher Grade 6 classrooms from 32 schools (450 cycles) in Finland	Applicability of the CLASS-S instrument in educational contexts (Finland) outside the United States.
[30]	WoS	To investigate the psychometric quality of a measure tapping pupils’ perceptions of teachers’ teaching behavior in the Indonesian context. It also examines the relationship between pupils’ perceptions of teaching behavior and perceived academic motivation.	4000 pupils of 200 teachers/classes from 16 public schools in West Java Indonesia	The Indonesian version of the instrument is reliable and valid for measuring teaching behavior in the Indonesian context. Teachers’ teaching behavior significantly predicts pupils’ controlled and autonomous motivation. The result of teaching behavior is stronger for pupils’ autonomous motivation than for controlled motivation.
[31]	WoS	To develop a self-assessment instrument and norms tests to analyze teacher’s social and personal competencies.	Instrument reviewed by five experts 10 teachers randomly as respondents in the pilot study 622 teachers from 22 senior high schools (government schools) in Makasar	Reliability analysis showed the alpha values for personal and social competencies were acceptable and developed a Norm to understand the results of the self-assessment instrument, which consist of three scales: high, average, and low.
[32]	WoS	To assess comprehensively student perceptions of teaching quality that predict engagement and achievement.	548 and 1555 high school students	A preliminary version of the scale of teaching quality dimensions showed evidence of reliability and provided a method to assess teaching quality.
[33]	WoS	To determine the degree of teachers’ self-assessment in terms of working with gifted students in the classroom.	922 lower secondary school teachers in the Czech Republic	The overall rate of teachers’ self-assessment is positive. Teachers with shorter tenure, less experience, and less training in the area of gifted pupils showed lower self-assessment practices.
[34]	WoS	To develop a reliable and valid teachers’ intrinsic orientation to the profession (TIOP) scale based on self-determination theory and teaching effectiveness perspectives.	271 Dutch beginning teachers in secondary education	TIOP demonstrated valid and reliable test results.
[35]	WoS	To examine student teachers’ perception with Teacher Education had prepared them 21st-century competencies and how well they applied into teaching.	277 student teachers	Student teachers’ perception of their success in applying 21st-century competencies to their teaching at school with courses involving collaborative and interactive learning, high quality, and sufficient support.
[36]	WoS	To assess students’ perceptions of teaching behavior in national and international studies with my teacher questionnaire (MTQ).	12,036 students involving 466 classes/teachers from 24 general public high schools in Turkey	The scale MTQ worked well across the various groups for the assessment of students’ perception of teaching behavior.
[37]	WoS	To analyze teacher evaluation in school through concerning different internal evaluators.	100 teachers, 100 peers, 100 head of departments and 912 students from high schools in four different districts in Kuwait	No significant difference between teachers’ self-evaluation and head departments’ evaluation. Subjectivism and competition may affect peer evaluation. and students may over-evaluate their teachers.

. Based on the table below, ten articles were selected from WoS. These databases were chosen, due to the quality of the articles, particularly in the education field. The purposes of the studies were all related to teaching behavior, teaching quality, and self-assessment context. Most of the studies were conducted at the school level, including in lower and upper secondary schools [28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37].

2.5. Data Analysis Procedure

All articles selected were exported to the Mendeley referencing software. Then, thematic analyses were carried out to identify the main themes, in response to the following research questions:

(1)

What are the aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality?

(2)

What are the approaches of self-assessment in teaching?

(3)

What is the reliability of the instruments used for self-assessment in teaching?

Interpretively, this review analyzed the articles, classifying the themes for the research questions. The themes were classified based on the aspects stated in the literature review. The aspects stated in each article were categorized into two types of teaching behavior and quality aspects. For the second research question, self-assessment approaches based on the type of self-assessment mentioned in the articles. The third research question was classified based on the reliability test result from data analysis. Findings from the articles are deliberated in the following section.

3. Results

3.1. RQ1: What Are the Aspects of Teaching Behavior and Teaching Quality?

In this systematic review, quality teachers are categorized into (1) teaching behavior and teaching quality for student support and (2) teaching behavior and teaching quality for teachers’ competence. From this review, these categories performed the literature and were classified to provide a more comprehensive classification of quality teachers.

Table 4. Aspect of teaching behavior and teaching quality for students support.

Aspect	Examples
Positive climate	Learning climate [30,36] and positive climate [29].
Classroom management	Classroom management [30,36], classes preparation [32], and management [37].
Instruction	Clarity of instruction [30,36], instructional dialogue [29], instructional learning formats [29], step-by-step instructions [32], and instruction [37].
Activating learning	Activating learning [30,36] and content understanding [29].
Strategy	Teaching learning strategy [30,36].
Communication	Communication [30] and controlling language [32].
Rationale provision	Meaningful rationale provision [32].
Sensitivity	Teachers sensitivity [29].
Negative climate	Negative climate [29] and acknowledge negative feelings [32].
Critical thinking	Analysis and inquiry [29] and critical thinking [30].
Feedback	Quality of feedback [29] and quick feedback [32].
Motivation	Nurture inner motivational resources [32].
Differentiation	Offer meaningful choices [32] and differentiation [30,36].
Encouragement	Participation encouragement [32].
Challenge	Optimal challenge [32].
Process	Focus on the process [32].

and

Table 5. Aspect of teaching behavior and teaching quality for teachers’ competence.

Aspect
Enthusiasm for teaching and for the subject [34]
Regard for adolescent perspective (29)
Behavior management [29]
Productivity [29]
Global connections [35]
Creativity and innovation [35]
Using technology as tool for learning [35]
Self-direction [35]
Local connections [35], collaborative learning [35], interaction, and cooperation [37]
Autonomous motivation [34]

below present the categorization of the aspects highlighted in the articles and reviewed in this study.

3.1.1. Students’ Support

As depicted in Table 4, two articles showed the climate of teaching and learning is a part of teaching behavior. The results from these two studies [29,30,36] reported a similar notion, whereby a positive teaching and learning climate is included in the emotional support domain that draws from attachment and self-determination theory. It refers to aspects of the teacher-student relationship, such as creating a relaxing learning atmosphere, ensuring mutual respect between teacher and students (as well as between students and their peers), and encouraging high self-esteem among students.

Several studies [30,32,36,37] incorporated classroom management as one aspect of teaching behavior and stated that teachers need to manage their classrooms and prepare for their lessons. Efficient classroom management is an important predictor of students learning and outcomes. Teachers need to ensure that the lessons begin and end on time, manage lesson transition efficiently, minimize the time for task-unrelated matters, deal with students misbehavior efficiently, conduct a well-prepared lesson, and display good lesson structure. Therefore, teachers need to be well-prepared to handle the class well, explain and deliver lesson contents clearly and effectively, use a good pedagogy during class, and structure the lesson well. Another aspect of teaching behavior is instruction. Clarity of instruction [30,36,37] is linked to instructional behaviors that are important for learning. It involved a clear lesson structure, good interchange of explanations, lesson presentations, management of independent work, and clear assignment of individual and group works. Teachers also need to check that students understand the learning material.

Moreover, instructional learning formats and instructional dialogue [29] were included in the instructional support domain that draws from cognitive learning theories. How teachers engage students and facilitate activities can maximize learning opportunities. They can use structured and cumulative questioning and discussions to guide and prompt students’ understanding of lesson contents. Similarly, [32] asserted that teachers should provide clear goals and step-by-step instruction when assigning class activities. Hence, students know how to fulfil teacher expectations and achieve academic outcomes.

The authors of [30,36] examined whether activating learning integrates behavior that enhances learning outcomes, such as encouraging active learning, evading excessive workloads, and intensifying instructions. It can be achieved by activating prior knowledge and making sure that pupils are aware of the relevance of the lesson content. In [29], content understanding was put under the instructional support domain, in which emphasis and approaches were used to help students understand the broad framework and key ideas in academic disciplines. Thus, activating learning for content understanding is included as one of the aspects of teaching behavior.

On the other hand, refs. [30,36] stated teaching and learning strategy as one aspect of teaching behavior. It is used to support students, facilitating the development of internal procedures that enable them to perform the higher-level procedures. Teachers support the use of metacognitive strategies in their classroom teaching.

As mentioned in the same study [30,36], differentiation in teaching means that teachers recognize the characteristics of pupils they teach and understand that different pupils have learning needs to progress in learning. Teachers should emphasize the needs of each student when displaying instructional methods. Ref. [32] agreed with this statement that teachers must consider the student’s level when assigning activities according to students’ levels, which is called an optimal challenge. Likewise, ref. [32] also mentioned that teachers could diminish student feelings of coercion by providing different options, allowing students to choose something closer to their interest. This situation offers meaningful choices for the students. Therefore, differentiation is listed as one aspect of teaching behavior.

In [29,30], they studied analysis and inquiry with higher-order thinking skills that involved analysis and integration information, hypothesis testing and metacognition. It is also an opportunity for application in novel contexts and critical thinking. Otherwise, in [30,32], communication is one aspect of teaching behavior that focuses on non-controlling language. Teachers should talk to students in a soft, informational tone, using non-directive language and inviting forms, instead of controlling forms, as well as focusing on the didactics, rather than external pressures.

Another aspect of teaching behavior in this systematic review is motivation. In the findings of [32], the author pointed out that nurturing inner motivational resources could foster student autonomy by reinforcing student interests and developing student curiosity. Teachers can use interesting or up-to-date examples in-class activities or ask curiosity-inducing questions. In the same study, the authors also highlighted participation encouragement. This is an aspect where teachers should try to make students feel part of the class by requesting their opinions or encouraging them to participate in the learning process.

In the same study [32], the author encouraged teachers to focus on the process. Teachers need to stress the importance of learning to solve activities properly without internalizing their meaning and utility. It involves considering all procedures for solving a problem and stressing the importance of learning over exam results.

In [29,32], both authors highlighted the quality of feedback. Feedback extends and expands students’ learning through their responses and participation in activities. Positive feedback guides students to the desired goals and outcomes. There are four forms of feedback, feedback about the task, feedback about the handing out of the task, feedback about self-regulation, and feedback about the students as a person. Both studies [29,32] highlighted the impact of a negative learning climate. It was asserted that teachers need to make students feel less pressured and controlled by acknowledging negative feelings. If negative emotions arise in class, teachers could pay attention and understand it. Teachers and students may encounter anger, hostility, aggression, or disrespect in the classroom, which is a level of expressed negativity.

In [32], the author studied that teachers need to clarify why class contents and activities are important or useful by preparing eloquent and explanatory rationales. Teachers also need to explain the importance of schoolwork that is relevant, to help students understand the learnings’ interest. Meanwhile, in [29], the author added teachers’ sensitivity and responsiveness to individual students’ social/emotional and academic needs. Both aspects have been included in teaching behavior aspects.

3.1.2. Teachers’ Competence

Table 5 (below) shows teaching behavior and quality aspects of teachers’ competence highlighted in the reviewed articles.

As stated in [34], enthusiasm is a feeling-related affective dimension presented to identify the characteristics of teachers who achieve more in bolstering students’ attainment. It is very important to assess teacher effectiveness as either the expressiveness of effective teaching or the affective-evaluative teaching. Enthusiasm can be divided into two, enthusiasm for teaching is the positive perception of the teaching profession, and enthusiasm for the subject is the passion teachers show for the topic or content.

Refs. [35,37] had stated collaboration and interaction aspects. The collaboration aspect involves joint activities with other units or organizations to strengthen communication through cooperation programs or events related to the profession. The collaboration is including group work, teamwork, peer learning, co-teaching, learning communities, networking, and sharing. At the same time, teachers need to foster local connections to associate themselves with other peers and the community, in order to promote interaction.

Ref. [29] alone had added another aspect in teaching behavior which included regard for adolescent perspective, behavior management and productivity. Teachers may encounter the adolescent perspective such as social and developmental needs and goals for decision-making and autonomy, meaningful interaction with peers, having their opinions valued and relevance. Simultaneously, reinforcement of positive behaviors and monitoring, preventing, and redirecting misbehavior is the action required for behavior management. Whereas productivity as an aspect in teaching behavior is the degree to which teachers deliver activities that permit maximum time to be spent conducting learning activities by how well the classroom runs concerning routines.

As depicted in Table 5, ref. [35], showed four aspects related to teachers’ competency: global connections, using technology as a tool for learning, self-direction, creativity, and innovation. Global connections implied in social responsibility which can shape global and intercultural perspectives. While the competency of using technology as a tool for learning is a wider concept for ICT literacy and self-direction is involve leading oneself, regulating one’s own actions, and taking responsibility. Creativity and innovation demand teacher to transfer the knowledge creatively with an effort to support students’ understanding towards learning.

Meanwhile, as described in [34], autonomous motivation is positively associated with an individual’s ideal functioning, such as self-efficacy and feeling of personal accomplishment.

3.2. RQ2: What Are the Approaches of Self-Assessment in Teaching?

In this systematic review, self-assessment approaches have been studied that can be categorized into (1) reflective practice, (2) self-regulation, and (3) self-assessment purposes. For a better understanding of self-assessment, these categories emerged from reviewing the literature and were categorized. The types of categorization, with the respective articles used in this study, are shown in

Table 6. Type of approaches of self-assessment in teaching.

Type	Approaches
Reflective practice [28]	Practical reflection Cognitive reflection Affective reflection Metacognitive reflection Critical reflection
Self-regulation [28]	Goal setting Intrinsic interest Performance goal orientation Mastery goal orientation Self-instruction Emotional control Self-evaluation Self-reaction Help-seeking
Self-assessment purpose [31]	Social competencies Personal competencies

(below).

As depicted in Table 6, ref. [28] showed two types of self-assessment approaches which are (1) reflective practice and (2) self-regulation. The author referred to a study by Dewey (1933), which distinguished between critical and scientific thinkers. Meanwhile study by Schon (1983) had introduced two terms about reflection: reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. The study listed five approaches in reflective practice, including practical reflection, cognitive reflection, affective reflection, metacognitive reflection, and critical reflection as a subscale in English language teaching reflection inventory (ELTRI).

Ref. [28] also discussed self-regulation, defined as the degree to which learners are motivational, meta-cognitively, and behaviorally active in their learning process and achieving their goals. The study, referred to Zimmerman (1989, 2000), stated three cyclical phases of self-regulatory: forethought, performance control, and self-reflection. The instrument used for this study is the teacher self-regulation score (TSRS) with nine factors of self-regulation: goal setting, intrinsic interest, performance goal orientation, mastery goal orientation, self-instruction, emotional control, self-evaluation, self-reaction, and help-seeking.

Another study [31] examined how teachers’ social and personal competencies can be observed. The study developed an instrument based on the self-assessment method and norm using variables proposed by DeVellis (2012) to assess social and personal competencies.

3.3. RQ3: What Are the Reliability of the Instruments Used for Self-Assessment in Teaching?

In this systematic review, we also focus on self-assessment instruments used on the studies. The study determined the analyses used to examine the reliability of the instrument.

Table 7. The reliability of the instruments used for self-assessment in teaching.

Author	Instruments	Type of Instrument	Theme	Data Analysis	Reliability Results
[28]	English language teaching reflection inventory (ELTRI) Teacher self-regulation score (TSRS)	Design by Akbari et al. (2010) Design by Yesim, Sungur and Uzuntiryaki (2009)	Teaching Reflection Self-regulation	Spearman correlation coefficient formula	Positive significant relationship between reflective practice and self-regulation (r = 0.29; sig < 0.05) between experience and self-regulation (r = 0.74; sig < 0.05) between subscales of reflective practice and subscales of self-regulations (sig < 0.05) Cannot predict self-regulation
[29]	Class assessment scoring system-secondary (CLASS-S) Teacher questionnaire Efficacy belief for classroom management Teacher efficacy scale Psychological control Teacher interactional styles Teaching-related stress Modified inventory parenting stress Teacher exhaustion at work Bergen burnout Indicator Teacher work experience 6 choices	Design by Pianta et al. (2012) Design by Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) Design by Aunola, Lerkkanen, Poikkeus and Nurmi (2005) Design by Pakarinen, Lerkkanen et al. (2010) Design by Gerris et al. (1993) Design by Naatanen, Aro, Matthiesen and Salmela-Aro (2003)	Self- determination Disciplinary practices	Validity CFA Correlation r value Reliability Reliability Reliability Reliability Reliability	Poor fit for data Three factor model RMSEA = 0.24 SRMR = 0.10 CFI = 0.75 TLI = 0.66 Single factor model RMSEA = 0.29 SRMR = 0.12 CFI = 0.60 TLI = 0.50 Two factor model RMSEA = 0.24 SRMR = 0.10 CFI = 0.73 TLI = 0.66 Modification Indices Three factor model RMSEA = 0.13 SRMR = 0.06 CFI = 0.94 TLI = 0.91 r = 0.57 to 0.76 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82 to 0.90 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.77 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.76 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.67 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85
[30]	My teacher questionnaire (teaching bahaviour) Questionnaire on motivational dimension (academic motivation)	New instrument	Teachers’ Teaching Behavior Students’ Academic Motivation	Reliability test Classical test theory (CTT) Using EFA and CFA Item response theory (IRT) Using Rasch Modelling Model data fit	Satisfactory level (0.71 to 0.91) Reasonable good fit (CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.03) Sufficiently unidimensional (CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.04) Sufficiently homogeneous (Reliability = 0.80, Mean = 18.96, SD = 5.05)
[31]	Self-assessment instrument (adapted Devellis model)	Modification instrument of Devellis (2012)	Self-assessment	Construct validity and reliability (CFA)	High reliability (0.70 to 0.95)
[32]	Self-determination theory (SDT) framework Teaching quality Effort regulation	New instrument	Teaching Quality Effort Regulation	Multilevel CFA Reliability Multilevel CFA Multilevel CFA	RMSEA = 0.038 SRMR = 0.052 to 0.121 CFI = 0.980 TLI = 0.979 McDonald’s Omega = 0.650 to 0.893 RMSEA = 0.067 SRMR = 0.046 to 0.054 CFI = 0.966 TLI = 0.964 RMSEA = 0.038 SRMR = 0.010 to 0.013 CFI = 0.999 TLI = 0.994
[33]	Teachers’ self-assessment	New instrument	Self-assessment	Reliability	Cronbach’s alpha = 0.91
[34]	Intrinsic orientation to the profession (TIOP)		Intrinsic orientation	Multidimensiona lity Measurement invariance Construct and predictive validity Reliability Reliability	Hypothesis 1 and 2 RMSEA = 0.062 to 0.068 SRMR = 0.052 to 0.055 CFI, TLI > 0.96 RMSEA < 0.06 T1 r = −0.152, p < 0.05 T2 r = −0.091, p < 0.05 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.620 to 0.914 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83
	Teacher motivational dimension (TMD) Teacher questionnaire self-efficacy Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES) Teaching skills ICALT	Design by Opdenakker and Maulana (2008) New instrument Design by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) Design by Maulana et al. (2017); van de Grift et al. (2014)		Reliability Reliability Reliability Reliability	Cronbach’s alpha = 0.81 to 0.85 Internal consistency = 0.85 to 0.89 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75 to 0.94 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.74 to 0.88
[35]	Teacher self-assessment	Design by Hixon, Rayitz and Whisman (2012) and Ravitz (2014)	Competencies	Descriptive statistic	Mean value = 2.58 to 3.73 Standard deviation = 0.71 to 0.94 Interconnection = r = 0.42, p < 0.01
[36]	The my teacher questionnaire (MTQ10) The my teacher questionnaire (MTQ) The student engagement scale	Design by Inda-Caro et al. (2019); Maulana and Helms-Lorenz (2014) Design by Skinner et al. (2017)	Teaching behavior Behavioral engagement	Kolmogorov-Smirnov test Scalinf 1 (Guttman errors) Scaling 2 (Mokken) Reliability Reliability Reliability	(df (9415) = 0.00 p = 0.005) Missing value less 5% Strong scale H = 0.51 to 0.61 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.93 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75 to 0.86 Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80 to 0.84
[37]	Teacher evaluation survey	New instrument	Teachers’ evaluation	Reliability	Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79 to 0.92

(below) shows the type of the instrument and the result of data analysis.

As depicted in Table 7, ref. [28] used the English language teaching reflection inventory (ELTRI), design by [38], and teacher self-regulation score (TSRS), design by [39], as an instrument in this study. The reliability of these instruments was measured by correlation test (Spearman correlation coefficient formula), which showed a significant, positive relationship between reflective practice and self-regulation (r = 0.29; sig < 0.05), experience and self-regulation (r = 0.74; sig < 0.05), and subscales of reflective practice and subscales of self-regulations (sig < 0.05).

In [29], the authors used class assessment scoring system-secondary (CLASS-S) design by [40]. The reliability of this instrument is measured by factor analysis in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The three-factor model showed poor fit for data (RMSEA = 0.24, SRMR = 0.1, CFI = 0.75, TLI = 0.66). The two-factor model showed poor fit for data (RMSEA = 0.24, SRMR = 0.01, CFI = 0.75, TLI = 0.73). The single-factor model had shown a poor fit for data (RMSEA = 0.29, SRMR = 0.12, CFI = 0.60, TLI = 0.50). After modification indices, the data fit showed a better result (RMSEA = 0.13, SRMR = 0.06, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.91). In addition, the correlation between the factors in the revised three-factor model were r = 0.57 to 0.76.

Ref. [30] introduced a new instrument, with a combination of the my teacher questionnaire, to assess teachers’ teaching behavior, and the questionnaire on motivational dimension, to assess students’ academic motivation, which achieved a satisfactory level of internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha (0.71 to 0.91). The classical test theory (CTT) and item response theory (IRT) were also used to test the validity and reliability of this instrument. In CTT, the author used EFA and CFA; they showed reasonably good fit (CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.03). In IRT, the author used Rasch modelling, which showed sufficiently unidimensional (CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.04) and sufficiently homogeneous (reliability = 0.80, mean = 18.96, SD = 5.05).

In ref. [32], the author produced a new instrument called Self-determination Theory (SDT) framework to assess teaching quality and effort regulation. The analysis through multilevel CFA achieved satisfactory level (RMSEA = 0.038, SRMR = 0.052 to 0.121, CFI = 0.980, TLI = 0.979). Meanwhile, for reliability analysis, the author used McDonald’s omega, which showed internal consistency (0.650 to 0.893).

The self-assessment instrument was adapted from Devellis model used in ref. [31]. After modification, the instrument achieved a satisfactory level with high reliability (0.70 to 0.95) through CFA analysis.

In ref. [27], an instrument on intrinsic orientation to the profession (TIOP) was developed based on self-determination theory and teaching that achieved internal consistency by Cronbach’s alpha (0.620 to 0.914). The instrument is to examine cognitive and affective dimensions with a combination of reliable instruments that had achieved internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha), such as teacher motivational dimension (TMD) (0.83), teacher questionnaire (=0.81 to 0.85), Self-Efficacy Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES) (0.75 to 0.94), and teaching skills ICALT (0.74 to 0.88).

In ref. [2], the my teacher questionnaire (MTQ10) had developed based on the my teacher questionnaire and student engagement scale. The instrument showed internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha (0.93) and ref. [37] with (0.79 to 0.92) for a new instrument named teacher evaluation survey and ref. [33] with (0.91) also for a new instrument named teacher self-assessment.

Finally, in ref. [35], the author used teacher self-assessment, designed by Hixson Ravitz and Whisman (2012) and Ravitz (2014), to measure teachers’ competencies. The study reported a good correlation test result (r = 0.42, p < 0.01).

4. Discussion

The findings highlight the aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality. Overall, the results from the study represent the teaching behavior and teaching quality aspects that involved students’ support and teachers’ competence. Teachers need to prepare themselves with several aspects that can support students to perform an activity self-determined, without external pressures and being controlled. In terms of students’ support, the aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality include positive climate, classroom management, activating learning, instruction, differentiation, activating learning, teaching and learning strategies, analysis inquiry, communication, motivation, process, quality of feedback, negative climate, and providing meaningful and explanatory rationales. Meanwhile, for teachers’ competence, the teaching behavior and quality aspects are enthusiasm for teaching and the subject, consideration for adolescent perspective, behavior management, productivity, collaboration, global connections, local connections, creativity, innovation, using technology as a tool in learning, self-direction, collaborative learning, and autonomous motivation.

The review also looked into the self-assessment approaches with two categories: reflective practice and self-regulation. Practical reflection, cognitive reflection, affective reflection, metacognitive reflection, and critical reflection are listed under reflective practice. The approaches listed for self-regulation: goal setting, intrinsic interest, performance goal orientation, mastery goal orientation, self-instruction, emotional control, self-evaluation, self-reaction, and help-seeking. These findings show that teachers conduct self-assessment to determine their social and personal competencies.

Finally, studies included in this review have focused on the reliability of the instruments used for self-assessment in teaching. The finding showed that it is essential to look into the reliability of the instruments to ensure the internal consistency of each instrument. Any instrument used for the self-assessment should provide a reliable and valid scale to prove its applicability. It was observed that most self-assessment instruments used in the studies reviewed had been proven as reliable through correlation tests, items response theory model, factor analyses, or internal consistency reliability. Hence, the instruments provide reliable and valid approaches to self-assessment and could provide a quantified picture of teachers’ reflections in the long run.

5. Conclusions

To conclude, this systematic review has included studies associated with teaching behavior, teaching quality, and self-assessment. Thus, not having any systematic review on these matters altogether has filled the gap. Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, two databases, namely the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus, were used, and 10 articles were included in the final review. The main findings highlight thirteen aspects of teaching behavior and quality, related to student support, and twelve aspects of teaching behavior and teaching quality, linked to teachers’ competence. These findings help teachers and educators emphasize quality attributes that could support students during learning activities, enhance teachers’ competence, and improve teaching quality.

This study also highlights five reflective practices approaches, and nine approaches for self-regulation. In this regard, teachers can conduct self-assessment to measure their social and personal competencies, based on the approaches suggested. These findings imply that they could accelerate teachers’ development towards excellence.

Finally, the review’s findings highlight the reliability of the instruments used for self-assessment in teaching. The studies reviewed used several instruments; specifically, the English language teaching reflection inventory (ELTRI), teacher self-regulation score (TSRS), class assessment scoring system-secondary (CLASS-S), my teacher questionnaire, questionnaire on motivational dimension, self-determination theory (SDT) framework, and a self-assessment instrument, adapted from the Devellis model, intrinsic orientation to the profession (TIOP), and teacher self-assessment. The analysis found that all the instruments demonstrated internal consistency. Consequently, this review helps narrow the knowledge gap on self-determination, through reflective practice, which could be critical in achieving the teaching quality goals especially for IET in implementing muhasabah practice in their profession.