Assessing the Efficiency of Sustainable Cities Using an Empirical Approach
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Result
3.1. Descriptive Analysis
3.2. Regression Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Description | Max | Min | Mean | Median | S.d. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population | Number of inhabitants | 3,377,602 | 281,586 | 1,329,494.77 | 1,221,513 | 651,664.53 |
Water consumption | 103 m3 | 3228.9 | 85,826.9 | 841,671.1 | 60,260.9 | 687,605.6 |
Energy consumption | MWh | 23,811.61 | 145.81 | 5180.03 | 3010.77 | 5008.36 |
GDP | US dollars | 159,682 | 5,321 | 54,573.49 | 47,158 | 34,770.68 |
PM2.5 | Average level in µg/m3 | 30.50 | 5.50 | 12.08 | 10.90 | 4.66 |
CO2 | Thousands of equivalent CO2 Tons | 81,287.54 | 3499.10 | 21,743.08 | 14,567.56 | 18,612.75 |
Wastewater | (%) | 99.90 | 54.80 | 87.54 | 83.00 | 12.06 |
CITIES | SBI | SBI X | SBI Y | SBI YB | EFFICIENCY (θ) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Liverpool (ENG) | 0.08 | 0.13 | - | 0.08 | 92% |
Sheffield (ENG) | 0.12 | 0.18 | - | 0.13 | 88% |
Gothenburg (SWE) | 0.14 | 0.16 | - | 0.19 | 86% |
Thessaloniki (GRE) | 0.14 | 0.18 | - | 0.19 | 86% |
Valencia (ESP) | 0.15 | 0.27 | - | 0.12 | 85% |
Concepcion (CHI) | 0.15 | 0.19 | - | 0.19 | 85% |
Vancouver (CAN) | 0.18 | 0.21 | - | 0.25 | 82% |
San Antonio (USA) | 0.19 | 0.24 | - | 0.25 | 81% |
Malaga (ESP) | 0.19 | 0.16 | - | 0.32 | 81% |
Seville (ESP) | 0.20 | 0.27 | - | 0.24 | 80% |
Helsinki (FIN) | 0.20 | 0.41 | - | 0.15 | 80% |
Rotterdam (HOL) | 0.22 | 0.38 | - | 0.22 | 78% |
Pittsburgh (USA) | 0.24 | 0.44 | - | 0.21 | 76% |
Toulouse (FRA) | 0.25 | 0.42 | - | 0.25 | 75% |
Hanover (GER) | 0.26 | 0.25 | - | 0.39 | 74% |
Utrecht (HOL) | 0.26 | 0.26 | - | 0.40 | 74% |
Bordeaux (FRA) | 0.27 | 0.21 | 0.26 | 0.24 | 73% |
Linz (AUS) | 0.28 | 0.23 | - | 0.45 | 72% |
Hiroshima (JPN) | 0.29 | 0.28 | 0.16 | 0.31 | 71% |
Tampa-Pinellas (USA) | 0.29 | 0.52 | - | 0.26 | 71% |
The Hague (HOL) | 0.29 | 0.27 | 0.19 | 0.30 | 71% |
Antwerp (BEL) | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.19 | 0.29 | 71% |
Nice (FRA) | 0.32 | 0.33 | - | 0.48 | 68% |
Tallinn (EST) | 0.33 | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.40 | 67% |
Lille (FRA) | 0.35 | 0.38 | 0.26 | 0.30 | 65% |
Variable | Max | Min | Mean | Median | Sd | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
INPUTS | Population | 29.50% | 0.00% | 11.76% | 8.96% | 11.24% |
Water consumption | 88.15% | 1.69% | 54.92% | 55.64% | 22.14% | |
Energy consumption | 55.23% | 0.00% | 16.56% | 11.16% | 19.27% | |
DESIRABLE OUTPUTS | GDP | 26.48% | 0.00% | 5.07% | 0.00% | 9.39% |
UNDESIRABLE OUTPUTS | PM2.5 | 65.66% | 0.20% | 35.35% | 36.00% | 18.78% |
CO2 | 79.61% | 22.95% | 43.04% | 41.76% | 15.74% | |
Waterwaste | 63.97% | 0.00% | 27.69% | 25.52% | 18.02% |
City | Inputs | Desirable Output | Undesirable Outputs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Population | Water Consumption | Energy Consumption | GDP | PM2.5 | CO2 | Wastewater | |
Antwerp | - | 0.56 | 0.33 | 0.19 | 0.43 | 0.52 | 0.23 |
Bordeaux | 0.16 | 0.48 | - | 0.26 | 0.40 | 0.38 | 0.19 |
Concepcion | 0.09 | 0.48 | - | - | 0.27 | 0.24 | 0.26 |
Gothenburg | 0.14 | 0.02 | 0.34 | - | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.38 |
Hanover | 0.07 | 0.47 | 0.22 | - | 0.54 | 0.50 | 0.51 |
Helsinki | 0.02 | 0.68 | 0.53 | - | 0.00 | 0.30 | 0.28 |
Hiroshima | 0.08 | 0.76 | - | 0.16 | 0.44 | 0.47 | 0.34 |
Lille | 0.28 | 0.86 | - | 0.26 | 0.54 | 0.48 | 0.19 |
Linz | - | 0.52 | 0.17 | - | 0.65 | 0.55 | 0.60 |
Liverpool | 0.24 | 0.16 | - | - | 0.08 | 0.23 | 0.00 |
Malaga | - | 0.48 | - | - | 0.60 | 0.24 | 0.43 |
Nice | 0.08 | 0.68 | - | 0.20 | 0.66 | 0.43 | 0.50 |
Pittsburgh | - | 0.78 | 0.55 | - | 0.18 | 0.67 | - |
Rotterdam | - | 0.78 | 0.35 | - | 0.27 | 0.42 | 0.19 |
San Antonio | 0.29 | 0.42 | - | - | 0.48 | 0.33 | 0.21 |
Seville | 0.26 | 0.56 | - | - | 0.40 | 0.39 | 0.19 |
Sheffield | 0.30 | 0.25 | - | - | 0.20 | 0.29 | 0.04 |
Tallinn | - | 0.74 | 0.25 | - | 0.50 | 0.80 | 0.64 |
Tampa-Pinellas | 0.12 | 0.88 | 0.55 | - | 0.03 | 0.71 | 0.30 |
The Hague | - | 0.61 | 0.21 | 0.19 | 0.36 | 0.57 | 0.28 |
Thessaloniki | 0.09 | 0.45 | - | - | 0.34 | 0.37 | 0.05 |
Toulouse | 0.24 | 0.82 | 0.21 | - | 0.34 | 0.44 | 0.21 |
Utrecht | - | 0.45 | 0.32 | - | 0.53 | 0.62 | 0.45 |
Valencia | 0.22 | 0.60 | - | - | 0.14 | 0.32 | 0.04 |
Vancouver | 0.28 | 0.25 | 0.11 | - | 0.32 | 0.28 | 0.40 |
Mean | 0.12 | 0.55 | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.35 | 0.43 | 0.28 |
Median | 0.09 | 0.56 | 0.11 | 0.00 | 0.36 | 0.42 | 0.26 |
Aarhus | Belfast | Cartagena | Copenhagen | Cork | Debrecen | Marbella | Portland | Porto | Zurich | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antwerp | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.25 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.75/0.75 |
Bordeaux | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.33 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.67/0.67 |
Concepcion | ./. | ./. | 0.34/0.34 | ./. | ./. | 0.36/0.36 | ./. | ./. | 0.30/0.30 | ./. |
Gothenburg | ./0.25 | ./0.21 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.54/0.54 |
Hanover | ./. | ./0.24 | ./. | 0.51/0.51 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. |
Helsinki | ./0.19 | ./. | ./. | 0.65/0.65 | ./. | ./0.16 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. |
Hiroshima | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.56/0.56 | ./. | ./0.44 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. |
Lille | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.37 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.63/0.63 |
Linz | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.20/0.20 | ./0.53 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.27/0.27 |
Liverpool | ./. | 0.88/0.88 | ./. | 0.10/0.10 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.02/0.02 | ./. |
Malaga | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.00/0.00 | ./0.43 | ./. | ./. | 0.53/0.53 | 0.04/0.04 |
Nice | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.59 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.41/0.41 |
Pittsburgh | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.50/0.50 | ./. | ./0.30 | ./. | 0.01/0.01 | ./. | 0.19/0.19 |
Rotterdam | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.66/0.66 | ./. | ./0.15 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.19/0.19 |
San Antonio | ./. | ./0.27 | ./. | 0.01/0.01 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.71/0.71 | ./. | ./. |
Seville | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.15 | ./. | ./. | 0.63/0.63 | 0.22/0.22 |
Sheffield | ./. | 0.95/0.95 | ./. | 0.04/0.04 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.01/0.01 | ./. |
Tallinn | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.12/0.12 | ./0.65 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.22/0.22 |
Tampa-Pinellas | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.57/0.57 | ./. | ./0.41 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. |
The Hague | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.28 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.72/0.72 |
Thessaloniki | ./. | ./. | 0.13/0.19 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.33/0.33 | ./. | 0.54/0.54 | ./. |
Toulouse | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./0.32 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.68/0.68 |
Utrecht | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.00/0.00 | ./0.46 | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.54/0.54 |
Valencia | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.07/0.07 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.69/0.69 | 0.23/0.23 |
Vancouver | ./. | ./0.28 | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | ./. | 0.72/0.72 | ./. | ./. |
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Calzada-Infante, L.; López-Narbona, A.M.; Núñez-Elvira, A.; Orozco-Messana, J. Assessing the Efficiency of Sustainable Cities Using an Empirical Approach. Sustainability 2020, 12, 2618. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072618
Calzada-Infante L, López-Narbona AM, Núñez-Elvira A, Orozco-Messana J. Assessing the Efficiency of Sustainable Cities Using an Empirical Approach. Sustainability. 2020; 12(7):2618. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072618
Chicago/Turabian StyleCalzada-Infante, Laura, Ana María López-Narbona, Alberto Núñez-Elvira, and Javier Orozco-Messana. 2020. "Assessing the Efficiency of Sustainable Cities Using an Empirical Approach" Sustainability 12, no. 7: 2618. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072618
APA StyleCalzada-Infante, L., López-Narbona, A. M., Núñez-Elvira, A., & Orozco-Messana, J. (2020). Assessing the Efficiency of Sustainable Cities Using an Empirical Approach. Sustainability, 12(7), 2618. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072618