The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Social-Ecological Systems and the Application of Ecological Terminology
1.2. Quantifying Biocultural Elements within Social-Ecological Systems
- exploring the concept of functional groups within social-ecological systems,
- quantitatively classifying particular elements as either keystone components or redundant components of social-ecological systems,
- quantitatively relating loss of keystone components to loss of social-ecological system structure and function,
- quantitatively classifying loss of redundant components to diminished resilience in social-ecological systems,
- identifying alternative regime states within a single social-ecological system,
- quantifying regime shifts between social-ecological systems.
1.3. The Hawaiian Social-Ecological System
2. Theoretical Foundations
2.1. The Keystone Concept as Relates to System Structure and Function
2.2. The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept
2.3. The Influence of Crop Diversity and Cropping Systems on the Structure of the Hawaiian Social-Ecological System
2.4. Social-Ecological System Resilience and the Role of Redundant Components
2.5. Theoretical Assumptions
- Keystone function of a system can be viewed in terms of a functional group.
- Keystone components of functional groups are dominants within that functional group.
- Dominant components of a functional group (i.e., keystone components of a system) are not necessarily dominant components within the overall system.
- Shifting dominance within a keystone functional group replaces the keystone component of the system, thus influencing the structure of that system.
3. Testing the Keystone Theory in Social-Ecological Systems
The Hawaiian Social-Ecological System as a Model
4. Methodology
4.1. Quantification of Biocultural Diversity
4.2. Assessing Biocultural Functional Groups in Social-Ecological Systems
4.3. Quantitatively Classifying Keystone and Redundant Components
5. Results
6. Analysis
7. Discussion
7.1. Is Kalo Cultivation a Keystone Component of the Hawaiian Social-Ecological System?
7.2. Biocultural Relationships between Kalo and Hawaiian Culture
7.3. Kalo Is a Dominant Component in Hawaiian Cropping Systems
7.4. Kalo Is a Dominant in a Key Biocultural Functional Group
7.5. Cropping Systems Associated with Kalo Influenced the Structure of the Hawaiian Social-Ecological System
- This conversion induced localized regime shifts in large areas of land (valley floors and alluvial plains) from forest biome to riparian ecotone. This, in essence, expanded and stabilized riparian habitat—a highly productive ecotone—from a relatively limited to a very broad area. Archaeological evidence suggests that such localized regime shifts have occurred [67], and likely extended the range of native water (i.e., riparian) fowl allowing for increases in their populations [68].
- This conversion theoretically increased the capacity of aquifers (i.e., the islands’ ability to retain water). The expansive flooded-field system slowed the flow rate of water on its journey towards the sea, and increased surface area of land covered by water. This cumulatively increased the potential for aquifer recharge. Increasing aquifer recharge potentially increases the level of the aquifer, which could result in more artesian springs at higher elevations than previously existed. The appearance of these springs would further increase the potential for lands—at higher elevation—to be converted to flooded terraces.
- This conversion likely induced localized regime shifts in estuaries and nearshore reefs from predator-dominated to herbivore-dominated. In theory, this may have been achieved through the development of aquaculture technologies. The emergence of such technologies was likely enabled by the flooded-field system, which mobilized nutrients and then transported them to coastal areas. The water passing through this flooded-field system was presumably enriched due to both a direct and indirect increase in organic matter, and anaerobic soils that mobilized otherwise fixed phosphorous into water systems. This aquaculture system had several classes of fish ponds, including those that walled in large areas of near-shore reef. These walls trapped the enriched water, thus containing algal blooms which allowed for the farming of herbivorous fish within them, while maintaining the health of the reef outside of the walls. This effectively expanded and stabilized estuary habitat—another highly productive ecotone—from a relatively limited to a very broad area. The success of this technology hinged on the management strategies which included methodological removal of top predators.
7.6. Substitution of a Social-Ecological Keystone Alters the Structure of Social-Ecological Systems
8. Conclusions
8.1. On Keystone and Redundant Components within Social-Ecological Systems
8.2. On Biocultural Diversity and Resilience in Social-Ecological Systems
8.3. On the Model of the Hawaiian Social-Ecological System
8.4. Biocultural Restoration of the Hawaiian Social-Ecological System
8.5. Future Research
- Assessing the percentage of total land area associated with each biocultural functional group to classify between keystone, dominant, and redundant components within social-ecological systems.
- Exploring the functional groups relating to animal husbandry, and assessing dominance in the context of functional groups.
- Expanding these methods to the entire biocultural resource spectrum of a social-ecological unit, which in the Hawaiian archipelago extends from the mountains to sea.
- Assessing the viability of utilizing social-ecological keystones to induce a regime shift back towards the state of abundance known in the Hawaiian language as, “‘āina momona” or biocultural resource abundance.
Supplementary Materials
Supplementary File 1Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Cropping System | Dominance of Cropping Systems | Domination by Species Assemblage | Associated Crop Species |
---|---|---|---|
Rain-fed | 0.441 | 0.263 | 11 |
Agroforestry | 0.288 | 0.110 | 17 |
Flooded-field | 0.272 | 0.731 | 7 |
Latin Name | Hawaiian Name | Dominance in Rain-Fed Systems | Dominance in Agroforestry | Dominance in Flooded Systems |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aleurites molaccanus | Kukui | - | 0.186 | - |
Artocarpus altilis | ‘Ulu | - | 0.089 | - |
Broussonetia papyrifera | Wauke | 0.013 | 0.066 | 0.016 |
Cocos nucifera | Niu | - | 0.094 | - |
Colocasia esculenta | Kalo | 0.352 | 0.178 | 0.852 |
Cordia subcordata | Kou | - | 0.010 | - |
Cordyline fruticosa | Kī | 0.005 | 0.028 | 0.014 |
Curcuma domestica | ‘Ōlena | 0.005 | 0.015 | - |
Dioscorea alata | ‘Uhi | 0.073 | 0.036 | - |
Dioscorea bulbifera | Hoi | - | 0.028 | - |
Dioscorea pentaphylla | Pi‘a | - | 0.008 | - |
Ipomoea batatas | ‘Uala | 0.349 | - | - |
Lageneria siceraria L. vulgaris | Ipu | 0.086 | - | - |
Musa ssp. | Mai‘a | 0.023 | 0.099 | 0.059 |
Pandanus tectorius | Hala | - | 0.084 | - |
Piper methysticum | ‘Awa | 0.040 | 0.008 | 0.016 |
Saccharum offinarum | Kō | 0.043 | 0.003 | 0.024 |
Schizostachyum glaucifolium | ‘Ohe | - | 0.041 | - |
Tacca leontopetaloides | Pia | 0.010 | 0.028 | 0.019 |
Count | 11 | 17 | 7 |
Biocultural Functional Group | Dominance of Hawaiian Agriculture (DIS) | Domination of Group by Crop (DIBP) | Number of Associated Crops | Dominant Crop |
---|---|---|---|---|
Complex carbohydrates for food | 0.211 | 0.336 | 9 | Kalo |
Affiliated with deities | 0.129 | 0.132 | 12 | Kalo |
Ceremonial plants for religious practice | 0.108 | 0.277 | 8 | ‘Awa |
Wood (timber, fuel, vessel, music, misc.) | 0.098 | 0.184 | 11 | Kukui/Hau |
Famine food for a resilient food system | 0.078 | 0.121 | 14 | Kalo |
Medicinal applications | 0.069 | 0.105 | 17 | ‘Awa |
Leaves for weaving or thatch material | 0.059 | 0.459 | 4 | Hala |
Fibers for clothing | 0.037 | 1.000 | 4 | Wauke |
Simple carbohydrate for food | 0.037 | 0.274 | 6 | Niu |
Mulch for agriculture | 0.028 | 0.378 | 4 | Kukui |
Relates to the family system | 0.029 | 0.746 | 2 | Kalo |
Oil for culinary uses and healing | 0.026 | 0.501 | 2 | Kukui |
Drink for refreshment and recreation | 0.023 | 0.453 | 3 | Niu |
Genesis story with the culture | 0.020 | 1.000 | 1 | Kalo |
Leafy greens for food | 0.019 | 0.600 | 3 | Kalo |
Fibers for cordage | 0.018 | 0.257 | 5 | Kalo |
Dye for visual attraction | 0.006 | 0.510 | 2 | ‘Ōlena |
Glue/resin source | 0.002 | 1.000 | 2 | ‘Ulu |
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Winter, K.B.; Lincoln, N.K.; Berkes, F. The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093294
Winter KB, Lincoln NK, Berkes F. The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System. Sustainability. 2018; 10(9):3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093294
Chicago/Turabian StyleWinter, Kawika B., Noa Kekuewa Lincoln, and Fikret Berkes. 2018. "The Social-Ecological Keystone Concept: A Quantifiable Metaphor for Understanding the Structure, Function, and Resilience of a Biocultural System" Sustainability 10, no. 9: 3294. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093294