A Geolocation Analytics-Driven Ontology for Short-Term Leases: Inferring Current Sharing Economy Trends

Abstract

Short-term property rentals are perhaps one of the most common traits of present day shared economy. Moreover, they are acknowledged as a major driving force behind changes in urban landscapes, ranging from established metropolises to developing townships, as well as a facilitator of geographical mobility. A geolocation ontology is a high level inference tool, typically represented as a labeled graph, for discovering latent patterns from a plethora of unstructured and multimodal data. In this work, a two-step methodological framework is proposed, where the results of various geolocation analyses, important in their own respect, such as ghost hotel discovery, form intermediate building blocks towards an enriched knowledge graph. The outlined methodology is validated upon data crawled from the Airbnb website and more specifically, on keywords extracted from comments made by users of the said platform. A rather solid case-study, based on the aforementioned type of data regarding Athens, Greece, is addressed in detail, studying the different degrees of expansion & prevalence of the phenomenon among the city’s various neighborhoods.

1. Introduction

In the past decade, the sharing economy paradigm demonstrated a shift in how people gain access to and circulate goods. Even though sharing may be viewed as a basic economic behavior in human societies that has been existing for centuries [1], this innovative economic form has been recognized as a divergence from conventional models, because it concentrates not on ownership, but on access to assets and resources [2]. The emergence of the sharing economy has been the result of an array of developments in technology that have the availability of physical and non-physical products easier and simpler through a variety of Information Technology (IT) sources available online [3]. In this sense, open-source software, file-sharing programs, online forms of collaboration, and peer-to-peer (P2P) networks are all aspects of this new phenomenon. In 2011, TIME Magazine nominated sharing economy as one of “10 ideas that will change the world” [4].

Over the years, the aforementioned trend has been extended to such diverse products and services as rides, accommodation, tool sharing, relationship advice and even legal expertise. In the short-term rental (STR) market, Airbnb [5] plays a prominent role; starting in 2007, it has demonstrated outstanding growth, with a large number of available rooms in more than 190 countries, greatly affecting the hospitality industry [6]. Unlike conventional lodgings, Airbnb does not own or manage property and allows users to rent any livable space (from a sofa to a mansion) through an online platform that matches individuals looking for accommodation to home owners willing to share a room or a house.

Compared to regular hotel bookings, Airbnb listings pose as a competitive alternative for potential tenants, due to the generally smaller investment required by home owners. At the same time, STRs promise greater earnings to this latter category of people, especially in comparison to offering their property for long-term rental (LTR) [7]. As a consequence, STR platforms in general and Airbnb in particular have greatly affected LTR and accommodation prices worldwide in recent years [8,9].

Apart from the influence of Airbnb on the available housing stock for rent and lease, the STR platform affects the surrounding urban landscape as well. This is quite evident in the comment section of the website, where users judge their accommodation and overall experience after their stay is over. This free-form text reviews offer valuable insight on various aspects of their visits, that are not just limited on the lodging itself [10]; indeed, visitors also evaluate the available transportation and various points of interest (POIs) such as shops, restaurants, bars and historical landmarks, both in the direct vicinity of their temporary residence and afar in the city.

The systematization and categorization of this kind of knowledge is obviously of interest, apart from those offering their properties on the platform, to other businesses operating in the hospitality industry, to local tenants and of course, policymakers. Additionally, insight could be drawn about access patterns within the city and relationships inbetween its various neighborhoods that are not directly visible. In this direction, this work attempts at constructing a geolocation ontology whose purpose is to be used as a high-level inference for the discovery of latent patterns in a plethora of unstructured and multimodal data. The overall process is two-step; the results of geolocation analysis such as Airbnb listings’ expansion, ghost hotel prevalence and keyword extraction from comments, form intermediate building blocks towards a more complete knowledge graph. The proposed approach is subsequently applied on STR data collected from Airbnb on the City of Athens, Greece, that has undergone enormous changes, especially in the previous years of economic recession [11].

The remaining part of this work is structured as follows; Section 2 briefly reviews the relevant scientific literature and then, in Section 3, a focused case study of the proposed methodology is presented. Section 4 provides a detailed overview of the available data and in Section 5 key aspects of the performed geolocation analysis are reasoned upon, with a preliminary version of the proposed ontology being also provided. Finally, the work concludes in Section 6.

2. Related Work

The relevant literature on sharing economy is extensive and rapidly expanding; this observation also applies on research for the specifics of STRs and Airbnb in particular, as an investment strategy and the mechanisms regulating prices [12]. One of the most influential works on the matter is presented in [13], providing insight on how these types of markets come about and function. In the same work, the authors analyze the anomalies associated with the emergence of sharing economy and the ways interactions between providers and consumers are conducted; namely, the conditions influencing the trust between the different sides and those factors boosting or reducing the reputation of the providers. Additionally, some aspects regarding policy and regulation of the sharing economy, such as the dichotomy between formal businesses and P2P platform users, are also reviewed.

In contrast to other strands in the relevant research and the voluminous literature on sharing economy as a whole, and despite the increasing attention, the expansion of STRs remains a relatively under-researched topic. It was introduced in 2011 [14], followed by numerous printed and online media articles written since then. Nowadays, the relevant literature follows the trends of the phenomenon; the main issues covered include Airbnb (and other platforms) as an investment strategy and the factors increasing the satisfaction of its users, its spatial characteristics and level of expansion, policy choices and implications, its impact on the tourism industry, and its relation to rent hikes and increasing property values. An active part of this body of research revolves around the notion of touristification, meaning how cities expand tourism-related activities through gentrification [15].

Additionally, a wide geographical framework has been covered, with Mediterranean tourism powerhouses such as Barcelona or Lisbon having a prominent position in the existing literature. However, the main bulk of research has been carried out for the US market, with New York and Los Angeles sticking out [16] and recently, in cities and peripheries in South-East Asia (Singapore is an example) and South America. In Europe, apart from Barcelona, STR listings exhibit significant concentrations in Paris, London, and Rome. Athens, even though it is not among the European cities with the highest number of Airbnb entries, it exhibits one of the highest rates of Airbnb listings per a thousand inhabitants, meaning that it receives heavy pressure from the related activity [17].

Keyword Extraction

The construction of the geolocation ontology discussed in Section 1 is primarily based upon the extraction of keywords from the short, textual reviews left by guests of each lodging on the Airbnb website. Despite their significance for analysis, indexing, and retrieval, those reviews do not have assigned keywords. A great number of document processing approaches rely on the manual assignment of keywords by professional curators, who may use a fixed taxonomy or the authors’ judgment to provide a representative list. Therefore, the relevant research has been predominately focused on methods that automatically extract keywords from documents, as an aid either to suggest keywords for a professional indexer or to generate summary features for documents.

Early approaches to automatic keyword extraction evaluate corpus-oriented statistics of individual words [18,19]. In later research, similar metrics are used to select discriminating words as keywords for individual documents [20]. Corpus-oriented methods typically operate only on single words; this further limits the measurement of statistically discriminating words because they are often used in multiple and different contexts.

To avoid these drawbacks, many keyword extraction methods operate on individual documents; that is, they extract keywords from a document, regardless of the current state of the corpus. Document-oriented methods therefore provide context-independent document features, enabling additional analysis that characterize changes within a text stream over time [21,22]. In principle, the task of extracting keywords based on short-length text is challenging, as it is semantically sparse. For example, an algorithm that uses word co-occurrence in a single document is presented in [23], while in [24], keyword extraction is achieved using lexical chains that are composed of head nouns, which on their part, are derived from the representations of key phrases in the document.

Graph-based approaches have also been extensively used for this task (i.e., the Twitter Keyword Graph [25]). TextRank, on the other hand, takes into account the lexical meaning of the text unit, as well [26,27]. In [28], TextRank is extended in an unsupervised extractive summarization scheme that can examine whether there is any potential overlap between the extractive summarization and argument mining, while in [29], a system that applies a series of syntactic filters to identify part-of-speech tags is described, that is used to evaluate selected words as possible keywords.

The negative effect of short text in the semantic sparseness of the obtained representations may be addressed using clustering techniques. In this setting, short excerpts are spliced into “pseudo”-long texts and subsequently topic-extraction techniques are used in order to identify keywords [30], like latent Dirichlet allocation [31] and latent semantic analysis [32]. A similar objective is achieved through the combination of document-oriented methods with machine learning techniques [33], like bi-directional long short-term memory networks [34], recurrent neural networks and neural language models [35].

In an effort to achieve the best possible trade-off between performance, speed and efficiency, the rapid automatic keyword extraction (RAKE) [36] algorithm has been selected for the analysis that follows. RAKE is an unsupervised, domain and language independent method for keyword extraction from individual documents. More details on the algorithm and its hyper-parameters are provided in Section 5.1.

3. Case Study

The property lease model introduced by Airbnb has not only become commonplace, but it has also been imitated by individuals and organizations involved in the real-estate market. The Greek STR market in particular, experiences an increased mobility of international capital, as it draws the attention of foreign investors and the establishment of numerous Real Estate Investment Companies [37]. The ongoing economic crisis and the burst of the housing bubble in 2007–08 [11], from which the Greek real estate market has not fully recovered, is one of the main reasons behind this increased mobility, as property values remain at low levels compared to other EU countries [38]. Equally important, is the factor of the Golden Visa program in Greece, which allows investors from outside the EU to acquire EU residency and citizenship and be able to invest inside the Schengen Zone. The program has been particularly lucrative for Russian, Chinese, Israeli, Turkish and Arab investors; besides the residency and citizenship privileges that come with the visa, investors seek for an income in hard currency, as is the euro. At the same time, Greece as a whole and Athens as an urban destination receive every year soaring numbers of visitors which, after 2013, are constantly increasing. For the real estate market of Athens, investing in the areas in close vicinity to the Acropolis is advised, due to its status as a prominent cultural attraction and the dynamism of STRs [39]. Additionally, a currently under construction expanding subway network valorizes a line of areas across Athens, opening up new STR markets; a very interesting example is that of the neighborhood of Exarcheia, which, attracts a curious blend of alternative visitors, and at the same time is among the next stations of the newly-planned metro line, exhibiting exceptional dynamics in its housing market.

According to a survey by the Greek Tourism Confederation [40], an estimated $170.542$ STRs had been available in Greece, on Airbnb and HomeAway [41] platforms, in between June 2018 to May 2019, producing a total revenue of €$1.15$ billion. It is worth noting that $50\%$ of STR properties are already in the hands of large corporations, which withhold from $10\%$ to $30\%$ of their turnover, depending on the services they offer. The aforementioned facts indicate that it is an expandable market, operating in very high volumes. At the same time, according to the 2019 aggregate data released by the Spitogatos real estate website [42], rental prices have seen very large increases in the majority of Greek cities, with the largest changes being observed in Piraeus ($25.2\%$) and the central and western suburbs of Athens ($20\%$). Nevertheless, recent surveys conducted by AirDNA [43] indicate that STRs are showing signs of fatigue, with homeowners who have their properties listed to relevant platforms witnessing falls in occupancy and revenue. According to a recent journalistic investigation [44], average occupancy in Athens in May 2019 reached $65.9\%$, compared to $67.7\%$ in same month of the previous year; a $2.66\%$ decrease. At the same time, active listings jumped by $26\%$ year-on-year (from 8156 to 10,281), forcing owners to drop their average daily rate by $7\%$ (from €74 to €69).

More formally, accommodation performance in the hospitality industry is measured by the revenue per available room (RevPAR) metric [45], which is the product of a hotel’s average daily room rate times its occupancy rate. RevPAR is a useful tool for analyzing trends and fluctuations in room tenancy in any given hotel unit. In a broader sense, RevPAR potentially suggests some interesting implications both for ordinary hotels and STRs alike. For example, a decline in RevPAR has been witnessed between April 2018 & 2019 in Athens, when it fell from $50\%$ to $45.5\%$, an indication that access to accommodation is becoming increasingly difficult.

4. Dataset

In order to study the current trends in STRs in Athens, Greece, an analytic methodology has been developed, based on data provided by Inside Airbnb [46], an independent initiative studying the expansion and effect of the eponymous sharing economy platform on various cities and areas around the world (Airbnb does not disclose data about its operation, yet). The said initiative crawls publicly available information about an area’s listings on the platform’s website on a regular basis and provides rich data dumps that thoroughly describe every available entry. For the City of Athens, Greece in particular, Inside Airbnb has been providing data dumps since July 2015 on an irregular basis and after July 2018 on a regular (monthly) basis. In total, 21 distinct data dumps have been made available at the time of writing, with the latest being on released on November 2019.

Each data dump consists of a number of tabular files that provide various degrees of detail pertaining to three key aspects that characterize every listing:

• its characteristics (e.g., description, location, etc)
• its availability for rent throughout the year
• the reviews it has received so far.

The methodology of this work is mainly based on data regarding the characteristics of the listings and the reviews they have received and for this reason the relevant information is going to be analyzed in more detail in the following subsections.

4.1. Characteristics

The data dumps contain two tabular files with respect to the characteristics of each listing; one that contains 16 basic features and another that contains 106 very detailed additional features. For the purpose of the current analysis, the basic features have been considered to be sufficient. They can be grouped into the following categories:

• Host details (name, id, number of properties managed)
• Listing details (listing id, description, exact location, neighborhood, property type)
• Basic availability details (availability throughout the year, minimum nights per stay)
• Price per night (in USD)
• Aggregated review details

Table 1. Characteristics of Inside Airbnb data dumps of Athens, Greece.

No.	Date	Total Number of Listings	Mean Price per Night	Average Number of Available Days per Year
1	17th July 2015	2116	$\$58.47$	$311.44$
2	9th May 2017	5127	$\$54.83$	$248.63$
3	14th April 2018	7962	$\$59.65$	$230.93$
4	16th May 2018	7828	$\$61.74$	$226.71$
5	16th July 2018	8968	$\$61.02$	$231.52$
6	15th August 2018	9360	$\$61.36$	$235.02$
7	13th September 2018	9294	$\$62.24$	$237.71$
8	11th October 2018	9163	$\$66.16$	$239.32$
9	15th November 2018	9122	$\$66.56$	$245.49$
10	12th December 2018	8647	$\$65.82$	$248.18$
11	16th January 2019	8891	$\$64.84$	$246.02$
12	8th February 2019	9100	$\$65.50$	$241.43$
13	11th March 2019	9361	$\$64.89$	$236.11$
14	13th April 2019	9661	$\$64.36$	$229.41$
15	15th May 2019	10,079	$\$64.60$	$225.59$
16	10th June 2019	10,414	$\$65.16$	$226.38$
17	13th July 2019	11,047	$\$65.33$	$228.45$
18	13th August 2019	11,340	$\$65.39$	$228.89$
19	20th September 2019	11,338	$\$66.05$	$233.05$
20	17th October 2019	11,213	$\$66.21$	$236.45$
21	19th November 2019	11,263	$\$65.96$	$240.35$
	Average Value		$\$63.63$	$239.38$
	Standard Deviation		$\$3.09$	$18.03$

below summarizes the evolution of three key features of the examined dataset for the City of Athens, Greece; (i) the total number of listings (ii) the mean price per night (iii) the mean number of available days per year.

Even though there is a scarcity of data in the earlier years, it is obvious that platform listings have witnessed an exponential growth from around 2000 to almost 10,000 (a 5-fold increase) in the three-year period between 2015 and 2018, followed by a small but steady linear growth since. Further analysis on the type of property listed on the platform (

Table 2. Listing types.

Data Dump	17th July 2015		19th November 2019
	Listings	Percentage	Listings	Percentage
Entire home/apartment	1729	$81.71\%$	9874	$87.67\%$
Private room	464	$16.35\%$	1040	$9.23\%$
Hotel room	0	$0.00\%$	291	$2.58\%$
Shared room	41	$1.94\%$	58	$0.51\%$
Total	2116	$100.00\%$	11,263	$100.00\%$

) reveals that, since the beginning, the overwhelming majority of them (more than $80\%$) are entire homes or apartments, while recently, an increase in listings described as Hotel Rooms is also visible. The above observation, in conjunction with the large average listing availability on the platform (5th column of Table 1) lead to the conclusion that properties on the Airbnb platform are another, concealed & unregulated form of touristic accommodation, thereby rendering the “sharing economy” claims extremely weak for the case of the City of Athens, Greece. Lastly, the mean accommodation price seems to be stabilized around $\$60$–$\$65$ per night or $\$1800$–$\$2000$ per month, which is at least 3 times higher that the average monthly LTR price and also a justification for the reason home owners prefer to list their properties on STR platforms than renting them to regular tenants.

4.2. Reviews

Inside Airbnb dumps also contain the reviews of each listing made by its guests, since the property’s first appearance on the platform. Consequently, the available reviews may date earlier than the first data dump (17th July 2015) and in reality, they span almost a decade (from July 2010 to November 2019). As reviews accumulate inbetween data dumps, the latest one (19th November 2019, as of writing) incorporates all the relevant information and consequently it was the one that has been examined. Every review is comprised of a number of features that include the review id, the listing id, the reviewer’s id and name, the date it has been submitted and lastly, the review content in free-text.

Table 3. Number of reviews per language of Athens’ Airbnb listings on 19th November 2019.

Language	Number of Reviews	Percentage
English	311,347	$77.39\%$
French	26,847	$6.67\%$
Greek	22,716	$5.65\%$
Spanish	11,765	$2.92\%$
German	7548	$1.88\%$
Italian	4814	$1.20\%$
Russian	2912	$0.72\%$
Other Languages	14,361	$3.57\%$
Total	402,310	$100.00\%$

summarizes the available reviews of the latest data dump; as it is evident, their vast majority is written in the English language (more than three quarters), therefore the analysis that follows will only focus on those reviews.

5. Methodology

The Airbnb listing data presented in the previous Section are aggregated for the City of Athens. However, as it is going to be evident in the forthcoming analysis, the expansion and prevalence of the phenomenon is extremely localized in nature, in the sense that certain parts, or neighborhoods, of the city exhibit high concentrations of relevant STR activity, while others remain relatively “underexploited”. This is characteristically presented in Figure 1, which depicts the density of Airbnb listings for the neighborhoods of Athens over the examined time period (2015 through 2019).

More specifically, Figure 1a showcases the density of activity in the first data dump of 17th July 2015 in the form of a heat map. Even though the central neighborhoods accumulate most listings, the overall distribution appears to be homogenous, as not big differences are witnessed between the center and the periphery. A totally different picture is presented in Figure 1b (the density heat map of the last data dump of 19th November 2019); in this case, the concentration of Airbnb listings in the central neighborhoods is two orders of magnitude bigger than the periphery. Additionally, STR activity seems to be “moving” to certain northern, southern and south-eastern neighborhoods.

In essence, the aim of this work is not only to showcase the active neighborhoods, but to also try to interpret the phenomenon and capture its dynamics in a systematic & consistent way. In this direction, the analysis that follows quantifies the evolution of STRs by examining various aspects of the available data and mapping them into the geolocation-driven ontology.

5.1. Keyword Extraction

User reviews constitute one of the most straightforward ways of studying STR prevalence. Even though taste and preference have an indisputably personal character when evaluating a lodging, they may also convey more general information, that falls well beyond the scope of a specific stay. This is vividly pictured in Figure 2, where an actual review from the dataset is displayed.

A detailed analysis of the content of this specific review leads to some interesting observations; for the most part, the user in question is evaluating the property (yellow marking) and the interaction with the host (blue marking). Nevertheless, certain remarks about the neighborhood are also present; the availability of shops, restaurants (orange marking) and public transportation (green marking) nearby, as well as a landmark, the President Hotel (purple marking).

In general, review content may be grouped in any of the five categories appearing in the legend of Figure 2; that is;

• Landmarks or Attractions
• Transportation
• Shops
• Accommodation
• Host

Even though the last two categories naturally vary between accommodations and hosts, the first three characterize the neighborhoods and constitute an indication of why certain areas are more popular than others. Therefore, the application of a keyword extraction methodology on review data is going to quantify user preference with respect to the aforementioned categories of interest.

Keyword extraction has been discussed in Section 2, where it has been reasoned that the keyword extraction methodology of choice in this work is RAKE [36], a domain independent algorithm, which counts term appearance and co-occurrence frequencies excluding special words, such as conjunctions and prepositions. Initially, all reviews pertaining to properties within a specific Athens’ neighborhood are concatenated into a single document. Then the document is split into a list of words and the stopwords (most common words & prepositions like “and”, “the” etc) are removed, getting a list known as content words.

In the following step, a square symmetric matrix of content word co-occurrences W is created; whose $w_{ij}$ element designates the number of times word i co-occurs with word j in a phrase, with the maximum considered phrase length $l_p$ being a hyper-parameter of the approach. Once W has been computed, then the score $s_i$ of content word i equals the ratio of its degree $d_i$, i.e., the sum of the number of co-occurrences i has with any other content word in the text (Equation (1)), over its frequency $f_i$ in text (Equation (2))

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill d_i& =& \sum _j{w}_{ij}\hfill \end{array}$$

(1)

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill s_i& =& \frac{d_i}{f_i}\hfill \end{array}$$

(2)

Content words may be viewed as phrases of length 1. The score of longer phrases (up to length $l_p$) spotted in the the list of content words ensues from the summation of the scores of the individual words they are comprised of. Finally, in order to filter out rare words and phrases, a minimum frequency $f_{min}$ is defined for any non-stopword to be included in the list of content words (and of any phrase of length less than $l_p$ to be considered), which constitutes the second hyper-parameter of the approach.

After a thorough experimentation procedure, the optimal values of the hyper-parameters have been determined to be $l_p=3$ and $f_{min}=10$.

Table 4. Most popular keywords extracted via RAKE from reviews of Emporiko Trigono-Plaka Airbnb listings.

Keyword	Score	Keyword	Score
harry belafonte suite	6.92	major tourist attractions	6.27
million dollar view	6.82	main historical sites	6.26
pristine urban suites	6.74	major metro stations	6.23
solo female traveler	6.69	major historic sites	6.23
main tourist spots	6.60	air bnb experience	6.22
air conditioning works	6.54	major historical sites	6.21
nearest metro station	6.52	main metro station	6.21
air conditioning worked	6.50	short walking distance	6.20
main tourist areas	6.48	great water pressure	6.19
great air conditioning	6.48	good water pressure	6.16
good air conditioning	6.45	king size bed	6.15
bring ear plugs	6.39	x95 bus stop	6.12
national archaeological museum	6.38	main shopping district	6.10
main tourist sites	6.35	ac works great	6.10
main pedestrian street	6.33	ac worked great	6.05
main tourist attractions	6.32	busy pedestrian street	6.03
major tourist sites	6.30	akropoli metro station	5.99
main tourist area	6.28	hot water heater	5.99
main shopping strip	6.27	air conditioning unit	5.98
national archeological museum	6.27

below summarizes the 20 most frequently extracted keywords for the neighborhood of Emporiko Trigono-Plaka, which is the most popular among the City of Athens neighborhoods, as it concentrates the biggest number of listings and the most user reviews.

A closer examination of the extracted keywords for the Plaka neighborhood reveal similar patterns, as those discussed when analyzing Figure 2. Among the most popular keywords, there exist those that are related to nearby attractions or landmarks (e.g., the National Archeological Museum of Athens), to public transportation (e.g., “x95 bus stop” and “major metro stations”) and to the availability of shops (e.g., “main shopping strip”). Of course, the most popular keywords need not be the same for all neighborhoods; in fact, the observed similarities and dissimilarities inbetween different neighborhoods are going to be among the key elements of the created ontology for the STR in the City of Athens.

5.2. Ghost Hotels

The main focus when studying STR impact on the housing markets is around entire home or apartments listings which, as it has already been discussed in Section 4.1 (Table 2), account for the overwhelming majority of the available properties in the City of Athens. The reason is that the aforementioned listings can no longer be available to house long-term tenants, thereby intensifying the housing crisis that has been witnessed in Athens in recent years. Private or shared rooms, on the other hand, are generally not regarded as a contributing factor to the said phenomenon, as they are viewed as properties that don’t affect the housing availability for regular tenants.

Nevertheless, a detailed inspection on private or shared rooms reveals that above assumption is not always valid.

Table 5. Number of shared/private/hotel rooms listings per host.

Number of Listings per Host	17th July 2015		19th November 2019
	Listings	Percentage	Listings	Percentage
One listing	228	$58.91\%$	430	$30.96\%$
More listings	159	$41.09\%$	959	$69.04\%$
Total	387	$100.00\%$	1389	$100.00\%$

groups these categories of rooms on a per host basis, for the first and last data dumps of the dataset (Section 4). For example, on 17th July 2015, 387 private or shared rooms were available on Airbnb for the City of Athens, 228 of which were listed by hosts having exactly one listing on the platform and the rest by hosts having more listings. This last grouping of listings are generally being referred to as “ghost hotels” because a single host pretends to possess multiple small properties while, in fact, s/he owns a larger one, split into individual rooms, much like an ordinary hotel.

In reality, these cases constitute an unregulated form of hotel operation and have been repeatedly labeled as unfair competition by both registered hotel owners and tourism-related authorities [47]. Monitoring the existence and expansion of ghost hotels is of great importance as it illustrates the dynamics of STRs and the development of tourism within the city. Indeed, Table 5 also portrays a more than a three-fold increase in relevant entries between the first and last data dumps, while ghost hotel listings have witnessed a 6-fold increase from 97 to 789 or from $40\%$ to $70\%$.

Figure 3 illustrates ghost-hotel expansion in the City of Athens between 2015 & 2019 (first & last data dumps). It is very similar to Figure 1, in the sense that most ghost exist in the central neighborhoods and not in the periphery. However, ghost hotel prevalence does not follow the same patterns as entire homes and apartments, since it does not seem to move to southern, northern & south-eastern areas. An exception to this rule is the rather sharp density increase around the areas of the Central Railway Station of Athens (Stathmos Larissis) and in the Kypseli neighborhood.

5.3. Ontology Creation

Following the previous analysis and case study description, the effect of user reviews is considered to be optimally captured within a given spatial resolution; namely, the diversification based on the municipal boundaries of the City of Athens, Greece. These variations are affiliated with special classes related to visitor comments, therefore the identified variables are dependent on their distinctive spatial identifier (i.e., polygon vertices and area-names). The variables are classified into particular fields on inductive thought, taking into consideration user opinion and the specific characteristics of each accommodation. The proposed knowledge model may be expressed in a formal manner with the use of basic elements towards semantic interpretation, such as concepts, relations between concepts and topics, that result in the ontology structure depicted in Figure 4.

In particular, each reviewing comment is considered to be part of a qualitative assessment category (i.e., “Landmark”, “Transportation”, “Shop”) in addition to specific quantitative ones (i.e., ”Price” and ”Amenity”) that are captured after each lease. Furthermore, each location consists of sub-classes (including the aforementioned classes), which are subsequently connected according to their respective statistical importance, among all areas of interest. In order to define, extract, and use the underlying knowledge of a set of concepts, we rely on the semantics of their relations, as the latter are expressed by the so-called “is-related” relation. In other words, the existence of an edge in the graph quantifies the relation, whereas the absence of an edge illustrates a non-existing relationship between any two concepts.

Since relations among real-life concepts are often uncertain (or a matter of degree), the approach followed herein may be extended to include a formal methodology and mathematical notation based on fuzzy relational algebra [48]. Still, as depicted in Figure 5, the proposed model is quite flexible and can be adjusted to the required research framework, i.e., one or more of its sub-classes may be altered accordingly. Therefore, in the presented approach, classifying natural language text through automated statistical and non-statistical procedures is split on the type of service provided by the owners of the listed properties.

6. Discussion and Future Work

This work constitutes a first attempt at studying the effect of STRs, an important aspect of the sharing economy phenomenon, in a methodological and concise manner. As a concrete use case, Airbnb listings from the various neighborhoods of the City of Athens, Greece have been examined. More specifically, the contribution of this work is twofold; firstly, a geolocation analysis of STRs is performed, based on a wide array of attributes, such as density, number of properties managed per host and property type. Their purpose is to uncover trends in the STR market. Secondly, exploiting the outcomes of the aforementioned analysis, an ontology is derived, describing certain high-level knowledge aspects that, in principle, are difficult to quantify, like the cultural value and entertainment potential for the given neighborhoods. Based on this ontology, latent similarities between non-adjacent neighborhoods are discovered, while the extracted keywords from visitor comments verify and evaluate the proposed approach.

Among the most interesting patterns extracted from the geolocation analysis are the similarities between non-adjacent neighborhoods that share certain trends, like the proximity to public transportation networks (in particular, the metro lines) and the existence of a variety of shops in the direct vicinity of the listings. Additionally, the presence of ghost hotels in the urban complex of Athens suggests that there is a high demand for affordable accommodation that is not yet fully met.

Finally, this work lays the groundwork for further research in the field of STRs. Possible future directions include the detailed study of visitor sentiment, as extracted from the available reviews, preferences with respect to city infrastructure and amenities for people with disabilities. Moreover, the role of shared properties in creating ad hoc visitor groups, with common interests and wishing to have similar experiences, is also worth further exploring.