Diamond/GaN HEMTs: Where from and Where to?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Due to the intrinsic nature of the 2DEG, GaN HEMTs are normally-on (depletion mode) devices. For power switching applications, normally-off devices are preferred due to static power consumption, simplification of circuit design, and safety concerns. Normally-off transistors can be obtained with different techniques [14], however their performance is typically worse than that of their normally-on counterparts [15,16].
- The existence of electrically active surface traps located at the passivation/top-layer interface [17] and of bulk traps present in the GaN and buffer layers [18] induces effects such as current collapse [19,20,21], dynamic on-resistance (or knee walkout) [22], degradation of cut-off frequency [23], and DC-RF dispersion [24], which compromise the reliability of the devices and prevent harnessing the full potential of GaN HEMT power devices [25].
- Due to the intrinsic nature of GaN HEMTs, harsh and localized self-heating in the conducting channel may occur [26]; this effect increases with the device power density and further compromises reliability [22,27]. On one side, the electrical behavior of the traps mentioned in the above paragraph is temperature-dependent [25]. On the other side, additional phonon scattering in the channel degrades the 2DEG effective carrier mobility, leading to degraded DC and RF performance [28]. Finally, since the relation between the mean time-to-failure (MTTF) of an electronic component and its operating temperature is semi-exponential [29], even a small temperature reduction can have a great impact on the lifetime of HEMTs with thermally-activated degradation mechanisms [30].
2. Thermal Management of GaN HEMTs
2.1. GaN HEMT
- Substrate. Homoepitaxial growth of GaN-based films is hampered by the limited availability of GaN substrates in standard wafer sizes. As a consequence, the different layers are typically deposited by either Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE) or MOCVD onto sapphire, Si, or silicon carbide (SiC) substrates. Epitaxial films with dislocation densities of 108 cm−2 are typically obtained [36]; dislocation densities lower than 107 cm−2 involve hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) growth.
- Nucleation layer. The deposition of high quality epitaxial GaN films with smooth surfaces and low dislocation density is not a straightforward task due to lattice mismatch and to the difference in the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs) of GaN and substrate [37]. A nucleation layer, typically 40–200 nm of aluminum nitride (AlN) [38], is thus initially deposited on the substrate surface for strain accommodation and increased interface resistivity [39,40].
- Strain relief layer. AlGaN/GaN transition layers, often up to 1 µm thickness, further accommodate the lattice mismatch during the growth of GaN on the foreign substrate [41].
- GaN layer. A 0.6–1.5 µm-thick GaN buffer layer that provides electrical isolation to reduce substrate leakage and prevents the propagation of threading dislocations and contaminants that might migrate from the substrate into the top high quality channel region follows.
- Passivation layer. A thin dielectric layer, typically silicon nitride (Si3N4), compensates the surface/interface states responsible for the current collapse issue by introducing shallow donors [44].
- Field plate. The source and gate-connected field plates are usually employed to reduce the strength of the electric field near the gate terminal, reducing the gate tunneling injection current responsible for charging the surface traps [45].
2.2. Getting the Heat Out
2.3. Why GaN-Diamond HEMTs?
3. Integration of Diamond and GaN
3.1. GaN-on-Diamond
3.2. Bonded Wafers
3.3. GaN Epitaxy
3.4. Capping Diamond
4. GaN/Diamond HEMTs: Where to Go?
4.1. Challenges of Fabricating GaN-on-Diamond Wafers
4.1.1. Decreasing Thermal Stress
4.1.2. Optimizing the Thermal Barrier Resistance at the Diamond/GaN Interface
4.1.3. Optimizing Diamond CVD for Thermal Management Applications
4.1.3.1. Impact of the Seeding Procedure
- Ultrasonic agitation in a suspension containing DND seeds. Ultrasonic seeding has been widely used since the early 1990s [176]. Seeding can be performed with different sized diamond grit, as well as with a mixture of diamond grit and metal particles. As an example, the adhesion of 0.25 µm tungsten (W) and Ti particles to a nanodiamond suspension was reported to increase the seeding density and the adhesion of diamond films deposited on Si and Si3N4 substrates [177]. A significant improvement was achieved with DND particles colloidal solutions, which enabled seeding densities in excess of 1012 cm−2 [178].
- Enhancement of electrostatic attraction between DND seeds and substrate. By properly tuning the ζ-potentials of seeds and/or substrates, one can benefit from enhanced electrostatic attraction between the DND seeds and the substrate. This can be achieved by terminating the DND seeds with oxygen (O) or H atoms [179] or by preparing polymer/nanodiamond colloids [180,181]. This effect can be further enhanced by exposing the substrate to a plasma treatment in order to guarantee that the ζ-potentials of diamond seeds and substrate have opposite signs [84].
4.1.4. Optimizing the Thickness of the GaN Epilayers
4.2. Challenges of Bonding GaN and Diamond Wafers
4.3. Challenges of Epitaxially Growing GaN on Diamond
4.4. Challenges of Capping GaN HEMTs with Diamond
4.5. What Is the Best Approach?
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Performance of Diamond/GaN HEMT Transistors
Ref. | Year | HEMT Dimensions a | DC Measurements | Small-Signal | Large Signal | Rth (K⋅mm/W) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID max (mA/mm) | gm peak (mS/mm) | PD, DC (W/mm) | VD (V) | fT (GHz) | fmax (GHz) | Conditions | PAE (%) | PD (W/mm) | |||||
[63] | 2006 | NF/WG/LSD/LG | 2/150/4.5/1.5 | 306 | 70 | -- | -- | 8 | 11.46 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[64] | 2007 | NF/WG/LSD/LG | 1/50/4.5/1.2 | 800 | 180 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
NF/WG/LSD/LG | 2/37.5/4.5/1.2 | -- | -- | -- | 10 | 12.3 | 21.8 | -- | -- | -- | -- | ||
[65] | 2007 | NF/WG/LSD/LG | 2/125/5.3/0.25 | 670 | 187 | -- | -- | 27.4 | -- | Class B; VD = 25 V | 47 | 2.79 | 6 |
Class B; VD = 20 V | 44 | 1.92 | -- | ||||||||||
[66] | 2009 | NF/WG/LGD/LSG/ LG | 2/50/2.5/0.5/ 0.04 | 580 | 220 | -- | -- | 85 | 91 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[70,186] | 2013 | NF/WG/LSD/LG | 1/50/4/0.25 | 1100 | 300 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
NF/WG/LSD/LG | 2/100/4/0.25 | -- | -- | -- | 30 | 30 | -- | 10 GHz; VD = 40 V | >46 | >7 | -- | ||
[28] | 2019 | NF/WG/LGD/LSG/LG | 2/100/3/2/2 | 662 | 199 | 27.56 | 10 | 10.2 | 31.4 | -- | -- | -- | 6.7 |
[101] | 2019 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 56 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2.95 |
[102] | 2019 | NF/WG/LG | 2/300/0.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | Pulsed; PW = 50 µs; DC = 10%; VD = 100 V | -- | 22.5 | -- |
NF/WG/LG | 10/50/0.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | Pulsed; PW = 50 µs; DC = 10%; VD = 100 V | -- | 23.2 | -- | ||
NF/WG/LG | 10/200/0.5 b | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | Pulsed; PW = 50 µs; DC = 10%; VD = 80 V | -- | 18.1 | -- |
Ref. | Year | HEMT Dimensions a | DC Measurements | Small-Signal | Large Signal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID max (mA/mm) | gm peak (mS/mm) | VD (V) | fT (GHz) | fmax (GHz) | Conditions | PAE (%) | PD (W/mm) | ||||
[109] | 2014 | NF/WG | 2/100 | 1000 | 330 | -- | -- | -- | 10 GHz; VD = 20 V; tuned for PD | 38 | 3.4 |
10 GHz; VD = 20 V; tuned for PAE | 42 | 3.0 | |||||||||
10 GHz; VD = 40 V; tuned for PD | 30 | 6.0 | |||||||||
10 GHz; VD = 40 V; tuned for PAE | 33 | 5.4 | |||||||||
[111] | 2016 | NF/WG | 12/50 | 1200 | 390 | -- | -- | -- | 10 GHz; VD = 40 V | 51 | 11.0 |
[112] | 2017 | NF/WG | 10/125 | 1000 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
NF/WG | 4/125 | Class AB; 10 GHz; VD = 28 V | 50.5 | 5.5 | |||||||
[114] | 2019 | NF/WG | 4 × 8/180 | 640 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[118] | 2020 | WG/Pg | 1000/30 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | Pulsed; PW = 10 µs; DC = 10%; VD = 50 V | -- | 19.8 |
Pulsed; PW = 10 µs; DC = 1%; VD = 50 V | 22.3 | ||||||||||
[119,120] | 2020 | NF/WG/LG | 2/75/0.08 | 690 | 325 | 4 | 85 | 106 | -- | -- | -- |
[122] | 2018 | NF/WG/LG | 2/300/0.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3 GHz; VD = 50 V; tuned for PD | 46.5 | 6.63 |
3 GHz; VD = 50 V; tuned for PAE | 54.2 | 5.39 | |||||||||
Pulsed; VD = 50 V; tuned for PD | 53.5 | 7.44 | |||||||||
Pulsed; VDS = 50 V; tuned for PAE | 59.1 | 5.91 |
Ref. | Year | HEMT Dimensions a | DC Measurements | Small-Signal | Large Signal | Rth (K⋅mm/W) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID max (mA/mm) | gm peak (mS/mm) | VD (V) | fT (GHz) | fmax (GHz) | Conditions | PAE (%) | PD (W/mm) | |||||
[129] | 2010 | NF/WG/LG/LSD | 1/50/0.2/4.5 | 730 | 137.5 | 10 | 21 | 42.5 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[130] | 2011 | NF/WG/LG/LSD | 1/100/3/20 | 220 | -- | 10 | 3 | 7 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
NF/WG/LG | 1/630/6 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4.1 | ||
[131] | 2012 | NF/WG/LGD/LSG/LG/LSD | 2/100/2.3/2.3/0.4/5 | 770 | 160 | 15 | 25 | 18 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
NF/WG/LGD/LSG/LG/LSD | 2/400/2.3/2.3/0.4/5 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 GHz; VD = 50 V | 46 | 2.13 | 1.5 | ||
[132] | 2012 | NF/WG/LGD/LSG/LG/LSD | 1/100/7.5/7.5/5/20 | 275 | 60 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[133] | 2012 | NF/LG/LGD/LSG/LSD | 1/0.4/2.3/2.3/5 | 800 | 160 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- |
Ref. | Year | HEMT Dimensions a | DC Measurements | Small-Signal | Rth (K⋅mm/W) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID max (mA/mm) | gm peak (mS/mm) | fT (GHz) | fmax (GHz) | |||||
[46] | 2001 | NF | 2 | 190 | 100 | -- | -- | -- |
[141] | 2010 | -- | -- | 150 | 113.9 | -- | -- | -- |
[142] | 2012 | -- | -- | 270 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[143,144] | 2013, 2014 | -- | -- | 445 | 127 | -- | -- | 0.96 |
[145] | 2013 | NF/WG/LG/LSD | 1/100/3/20 | 430 | -- | -- | -- | -- |
[148] | 2011 | NF/WG/LG | 1/50/0.25 | 400 | 170 | 4.2 | 5 | -- |
[154] | 2021 | -- | -- | 1100 | 148 | -- | -- | 7.4 |
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Material Property | Si | SiC | GaN | Diamond |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bandgap (eV) | 1.12 | 2.9 (6H)/ 3.2 (4H) | 3.4 | 5.47 |
Breakdown field (×106 V/cm) | 0.25 | 2.5 (6H)/ 3 (4H) | 3–3.75 | 20 |
Electron mobility (cm2/(V⋅s)) | 1350 | 415 (6H)/ 950 (4H) | 1100–1300 | 2400 |
Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅K)) | 150 | 380–450 | 130–210 | 2200 (single crystal) >1800 (polycrystalline) |
Coefficient of thermal expansion (×10−6 K−1) | 2.6 | 3.08 | 5.6 (a0)/ 3.2 (c0) | 0.8 |
Material | Thermal Conductivity (W/(m⋅K)) |
---|---|
Sapphire | 46 |
Si | 150 |
SiC | 380–450 |
Single-crystal diamond | 2200 |
Polycrystalline diamond | >1800 |
GaN | 130–210 |
AlN | 130 |
AlxGa1−xN | 10–11 |
InxGa1−xN | 5–11 |
SiN | 1.6 |
Ref. | Year | Dielectric Layer | Diamond Film | TBRGaN/diamond (m2⋅K/GW) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (nm) | Material | CVD Type/Thickness (µm) | κ (W/(m⋅K)) | |||
[63] | 2006 | -- | -- | HFCVD/25 | -- | -- |
[66] | 2009 | -- | -- | 75 | -- | -- |
[67] | 2010 | -- | -- | MPCVD/100 | >1500 | -- |
[69] | 2013 | 40 | -- | 30 | -- | 36 ± 12 b |
[70] | 2013 | 50 | -- | HFCVD/100 | -- | 18 a |
[103] | 2014 | 30 | -- | 100 | -- | 29 ± 2 b |
[72] | 2014 | 25 | -- | HFCVD/95 | 710 | 27 ± 3 a |
50 | MPCVD/120 | 1200 | 36 a | |||
[77] | 2014 | 50 | -- | MPCVD/110 | 1200 | 17 b |
90 | 41 b | |||||
[104] | 2014 | -- | -- | MPCVD | 1600 | 19 ± 3 b |
[105] | 2014 | -- | -- | 100 | -- | 47.6 b |
19 b | ||||||
[78] | 2015 | 34 | SiN | HFCVD/100 | 650 | 25 ± 3 b |
100 | MPCVD/100 | 1500 | 50 ± 5 b | |||
28 | MPCVD/100 | 1500 | 12 ± 2 b | |||
[79] | 2016 | 40 | SiN | MPCVD/100 | 1370 | 25.5 ± 0.5 b |
31.0 ± 0.7 b | ||||||
[80] | 2017 | 31 | SiN | HFCVD/100 | -- | 31.8 ± 5.3 b |
22 | SiN | MPCVD/100 | 19.8 ± 4.1 b | |||
17.4 ± 3.0 b | ||||||
[81] | 2017 | 30 | SiN | MPCVD/100 | -- | 23 ± 3 b |
[82] | 2017 | 5 | SiN | MPCVD/1 | 100–700 | 6.5 b |
AlN | 15.9 b | |||||
No interlayer | 61.1 b | |||||
[10] | 2018 | 5 | SiN | MPCVD/1 | -- | 9.5 + 3.8/−1.7 b |
AlN | 18.2 + 1.5/−3.6 b | |||||
No interlayer | 41.4 + 14.0/−12.3 b | |||||
[83] | 2019 | 100 | SiN | MPCVD/2 | -- | 38.5 ± 2.4 b |
100 | AlN | 56.4 ± 5.5 b | ||||
[102] | 2019 | 35 | SiN | MPCVD/120 | -- | 31.0 ± 3.1 b |
[99] | 2019 | 50 | SiN | MPCVD/100 | -- | 33 |
36 | SiN | 22 | ||||
41 | SiN | 15 | ||||
[88] | 2019 | 36 | SiN | MPCVD/75 | -- | 20 c |
17 | 13 c | |||||
[101] | 2019 | 30 | SiN | MPCVD/100 | -- | 18 b |
[106] | 2020 | 20 | Al0.32Ga0.68N | MPCVD/35 | -- | 30 ± 5 b |
Ref. | Year | Adhesive Layer | Diamond Substrate | Bonding Process | TBR (m2⋅K/GW) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (nm) | Material | |||||
[107] | 2013 | -- | Si-based | 1″ × 1″ PCD | Pressing at RT | -- |
[109] | 2014 | 35 | Si-based | 1″ PCD wafer | Pressing <150 °C | 34 ± 5 a |
[112] | 2017 | 30–40 | -- | 3″ PCD wafer | Pressing 180 °C | 51 b |
[113] | 2018 | 24 | Si | 900 µm-thick PCD on Si | SAB RT | -- |
[114] | 2019 | 6 | Si | 1 cm × 1 cm SCD | SAB RT | -- |
[115] | 2020 | 10 | Si | SCD | SAB RT | 19 a |
2 | 11 a | |||||
[117] | 2020 | 2 × 5/11 | Mo/Au | PCD/SCD | SAB RT | -- |
[118] | 2020 | 10 | Ti/Si | 5 mm × 5 mm SCD | SAB RT | 66 c |
[119] | 2020 | 2 × 450 | AlN | -- | SAB 160 °C | -- |
[122] | 2018 | No interlayer | SCD | VdW bonding | 10 d |
Ref. | Year | Diamond | GaN | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Deposition Method | Type | Thickness (µm) | Disl. Dens. (cm−2) | |||
[125] | 2003 | Natural SCD | MOCVD on 10 nm AlN layer + HVPE | Polycryst. | 2.5 | -- |
[126] | 2011 | (011) SCD | MOCVD on AlN layer | Polycryst. | 0.07–1.55 | -- |
[127] | 2009 | (111) SCD | NH3-MBE on 100 nm AlN layer | Epilayer | 1 | -- |
[128,129] | 2010 | (111) SCD | NH3-MBE on 200 nm AlN + GaN strain engineered interlayers | Epilayer | 0.8 | 8.4 × 109 |
[130] | 2011 | Ib (111) SCD | MOVPE on 180 nm single crystal AlN + 400 nm AlN/GaN | Epilayer | 0.6 | -- |
[131] | 2012 | IIa (111) SCD | MOVPE on 180 nm single crystal AlN + 500 nm AlN/GaN | Epilayer | 0.6 | 8.4 × 109 |
[132,133] | 2012 | Ib (111) SCD | MOVPE on 180 nm single crystal AlN + 500 nm AlN/GaN | Epilayer | 0.6 | -- |
[134] | 2009 | NCD | MOCVD on 50 nm GaN | Polycryst. | 3 | -- |
[135] | 2010 | PCD | MOCVD | Polycryst. | 0.8 | -- |
[124] | 2015 | PCD | MOVPE on 70 nm AlN layer + deposition of SiN stripes/etching + ELO | 15 µm wide epilayer | 1.5 | ≈7 × 10−9 → <108 |
[136] | 2017 | PCD thin films | Etching of Si substrate + MOVPE on 10–40 nm AlN/Al0.75Ga0.25N layers | Epilayer | 0.2–1.1 | -- |
[137] | 2020 | Post-deposited PCD | MOCVD of SiN-capped AlGaN/GaN stack on Si + selective deposition of PCD stripes + ELO | 5 µm wide epilayer | ≈1–5 | ≈109 → ≈107 |
Ref. | Year | Passivation Layer | Diamond Film | TBR (m2⋅K/GW) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (nm) | Material | Thickness/Type (µm) | Dep. Temp. (°C) | CVD Type | |||
[46] | 2001 | -- | SiN | 0.7–2/PCD | <500 | MPCVD | -- |
[141,142] | 2010, 2012 | 50 | SiO2 | 0.5/NCD | 750 | MPCVD | -- |
[143] | 2013 | No interlayer | -- | --/NCD | 750 | MPCVD | -- |
[146] | 2017 | 10 | SiN | 0.5/NCD | 750 | MPCVD | -- |
[148] | 2011 | -- | SiO2/Si3N4 | 0.5/NCD | 750–800 | HFCVD | -- |
[149] | 2014 | -- | Si3N4 | 2.8/NCD | 750–800 | HFCVD | -- |
[150] | 2017 | 50 | Si3N4 | 0.155–1/PCD | 650 | MPCVD | 45 + 13/–11—91 + 13/−9 a |
[91] | 2019 | 46 | SiN | 1.46/PCD | 720–750 | HFCVD | 52.8 + 5.1/−3.2 a |
[152] | 2019 | 30 | SiN | 3/PCD | 820 | MPCVD | -- |
[154] | 2021 | 100 | SiN | 2.5/PCD | 700 | HFCVD | -- |
GaN-on-Diamond | Bonded Wafers | GaN Epitaxy | Capping Diamond | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SCD | PCD | SCD | PCD | |||
Large area | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
κdiamond at interface | Low | High | High | High | ELO GaN-after-PCD: high | Low |
PCD-after-ELO GaN: evaluation required | ||||||
TBRGaN/diamond | Large | Small | VdW: not reproducible | Evaluation required | ELO GaN-after-PCD: evaluation required | Large |
SAB: evaluation required | PCD-after-ELO GaN: evaluation required | |||||
Removal of AlGaN/GaN stress-relief layers | Possible | Possible | Possible | Not possible | ELO GaN-after-PCD: not possible | Not relevant |
PCD-after-ELO GaN: possible | ||||||
AlGaN top barrier layer | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Present |
Induced thermal stress | Relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | Not relevant | ELO GaN-after-PCD: not relevant | Relevant |
PCD-after-ELO GaN: evaluation required | ||||||
Manufacturing complexity | Fair | Fair | Fair | Simple | ELO GaN-after-PCD: fair | Simple |
PCD-after-ELO GaN: complex |
Advantage | |
Limitation | |
Severe limitation |
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Mendes, J.C.; Liehr, M.; Li, C. Diamond/GaN HEMTs: Where from and Where to? Materials 2022, 15, 415. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020415
Mendes JC, Liehr M, Li C. Diamond/GaN HEMTs: Where from and Where to? Materials. 2022; 15(2):415. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020415
Chicago/Turabian StyleMendes, Joana C., Michael Liehr, and Changhui Li. 2022. "Diamond/GaN HEMTs: Where from and Where to?" Materials 15, no. 2: 415. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020415