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Review

A Comprehensive Analysis of Integrating Blockchain Technology into the Energy Supply Chain for the Enhancement of Transparency and Sustainability

by
Narendra Gariya
1,
Anjas Asrani
1,
Adhirath Mandal
1,
Amir Shaikh
1 and
Dowan Cha
2,*
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Graphic Era Deemed to be University, Dehradun 248002, Uttarakhand, India
2
Department of Defense AI/Robotics, Korea National Defense University, Nonsan 34334, Republic of Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(11), 2951; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112951
Submission received: 6 April 2025 / Revised: 21 May 2025 / Accepted: 24 May 2025 / Published: 4 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Section B: Energy and Environment)
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Abstract

:
The energy sector underwent a significant transformation with increasing demand for efficiency, transparency, and sustainability. The traditional or conventional system often faces several challenges, such as inefficient energy trading, a lack of transparency in renewable energy generation verification, and complex regulatory guidelines that affect its widespread adoption. Thus, blockchain technology has emerged as a potential solution to overcome these challenges, as it is known for its transparent, secure, and decentralized nature. However, despite the promising application of blockchain, its integration into the energy supply chain (ESC) is underexplored. The purpose of this research is to analyze the potential applications of blockchain technology in ESC in order to enhance efficiency, transparency, and sustainability in energy systems. The aim is to investigate the integration of blockchain with emerging technologies (such as IoTs, smart contracts, and P2P energy trading) in order to optimize energy production, distribution, and consumption. Furthermore, by comparing different blockchain platforms (like Ethereum, Solana, Hedera, and Hyperledger Fabric), this study discusses the security and scalability challenges of using blockchain in energy systems. It also examines the practical use cases of blockchain for the tokenization of RECs, dynamic energy pricing, and P2P energy trading by providing the Energy Web Foundation and Power Ledger as real-world examples. The article concludes that blockchain technology has the potential to transform ESC by enabling decentralized energy trading, which subsequently enhances transparency in energy transactions and the verification of renewable energy generation. It also identifies smart contracts and tokenization of energy assets as key parameters for dynamic pricing models and efficient trading mechanisms. However, regulatory and scalability challenges remain significant obstacles to its widespread adoption. Finally, this study provides the basis for future advancement in the adoption of blockchain technology in ESC, which offers a valuable resource for industry professionals, regulating authorities, and researchers.

1. Introduction

An increasing emphasis on sustainability and transparency within the complex global energy supply chain (ESC) is one of the key changes that the energy sector is going through. The ESC refers to the integrated systems that manage the production, distribution, and consumption of energy resources. It includes all stages of the energy lifecycle, from the initial extraction of raw materials (such as coal, oil, natural gas, or renewable energy sources) to the final consumption by end-users (such as industries, businesses, and households) [1]. The ESC ensures that energy is reliably produced, efficiently transported, and fairly distributed to meet demand while adhering to environmental, social, and regulatory standards. It is now crucial to manage ESC with strength and transparency as the world works to address the issues brought on by climate change and shift to much cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. Thus, energy supply chain management (ESCM) refers to the planning, execution, and optimization of all activities involved in the production, processing, transmission, distribution, and consumption of energy resources [2]. This includes the management of energy-related resources, processes, and systems across the entire ESC to ensure the efficient, reliable, and sustainable delivery of energy from producers to consumers. The intricate and centralized structures of traditional ESC raise questions about accountability, efficiency, and environmental impact [3]. Some of the issues that traditional systems face include the lack of transparency in transaction processes, the difficulty of verifying legitimacy, the source of energy, and the potential for fraud or error [4]. These challenges not only make it more difficult to meet sustainability goals, but they also reduce stakeholder confidence in the energy sector. In this context, blockchain technology emerges as a disruptive force that could transform the ESC model by introducing previously unachievable levels of security, transparency, and efficiency [5,6].
Although blockchain was first created as the core technology behind cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, it has since evolved into a versatile instrument that can be applied to many different fields. In the context of ESC, the distributed and decentralized ledger capabilities of blockchain offer an alternative to traditional centralized models [7,8]. The core features of this technology, such as transparency, consistency, and consensus processes, address significant issues in energy management and transactions. Blockchain’s capacity to enable secure, transparent energy transactions is particularly helpful in a setting where decentralized energy production is becoming more and more popular and renewable energy sources are gaining traction [9,10]. By tracking the origin of energy from its source to its final consumer, we can establish trust in the sustainability claims made by energy producers and promote a more responsible and environmentally conscious energy industry [11]. Furthermore, this study’s context extends beyond theory because a growing number of real-world applications show that blockchain technology is both feasible and effective in ESC [12,13,14]. For example, pilot projects and initiatives around the world have demonstrated the benefits of using blockchain technology for energy transactions, grid management, and tracking renewable energy certificates (RECs). Along with providing useful information about the practical challenges and considerations to be made when implementing blockchain in different energy ecosystems, these projects or initiatives also bolster the theoretical claims of blockchain technology. Nevertheless, there are still a lot of challenges and unsolved problems despite the growing interest and favorable outcomes. Therefore, careful consideration is necessary to overcome the complex challenges posed by regulatory frameworks, interoperability issues, scalability concerns, and the integration of blockchain technology with current energy infrastructure [15,16].
However, it is crucial to understand the larger context of sustainability within the energy sector in addition to addressing the challenges [17,18]. The energy sector is going to be under more and more scrutiny as a result of the urgency to reduce climate change and the worldwide push for sustainability. Thus, more accountability and transparency in energy production and consumption are being demanded by businesses, governments, and consumers [19]. However, the shift to renewable energy sources, like hydropower, wind, and solar power, calls for a review of current supply chain processes. Moreover, the potential of blockchain technology to completely transform the production, distribution, and consumption of energy is in perfect balance with the overall objectives of building a more sustainable and clean energy future [6,20]. This study also considers how global ESCs are interconnected. The pursuit of sustainability and transparency becomes more difficult because of the complex nature of global energy trade, which involves numerous stakeholders, a variety of regulatory frameworks, and geopolitical factors [21,22]. But the decentralized nature of blockchain technology, when combined with cryptographic security, presents an attractive opportunity to accelerate cross-border energy transactions, lower the chance of fraudulent activities, and create a more transparent and equitable global energy market [23,24].
A significant example of transparency in ESC by integrating blockchain technology is the Energy Web Foundation initiative [25]. This initiative utilizes blockchain to develop a decentralized platform for tracking renewable energy generation and its consumption. It ensures that energy transactions are fully transparent, which is an essential step for businesses and consumers focusing on sustainability goals. Blockchain also allows peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading, which promotes energy decentralization. By allowing individuals to trade surplus energy with others, it decreases dependency on centralized energy grids and empowers the integration of local renewable energy sources. For example, another blockchain-based platform known as the Power Ledger facilitates decentralized energy trading, where consumers can buy and sell energy directly [26]. This develops a more resilient system that allows individuals to participate in green energy without depending on traditional energy suppliers. Moreover, transparency and sustainability in the ESC are achievable by utilizing a combination of environmental, economic, and societal factors. Firstly, there is an urgent need to reduce the environmental impact of energy production and consumption as the world deals with the growing threats of climate change and environmental degradation [1,2]. For stakeholders to make well-informed decisions that give priority to cleaner and renewable alternatives, there needs to be transparency throughout the ESC to precisely evaluate the ecological impact of different energy sources [4]. Second, from an economic standpoint, sustainable energy practices can lower long-term expenses related to resource depletion, health effects, and restoration of the environment. Transparent supply chains draw investments by giving investors a clear picture of the sustainability initiatives made by energy providers while also reducing the risks associated with fraud and poor management [2,4]. Thirdly, the energy sector has observed a shift in consumer preferences and societal expectations toward environmentally friendly and ethically sourced products. Stakeholders (consumers, companies, and government agencies) are calling for more information about the source and environmental characteristics of the utilized energy. As a result, integrating sustainability and transparency into ESC is not only a way to meet environmental regulations but also a business strategy for organisations looking to thrive in a market that is both socially and environmentally conscious [27,28]. In order to improve the sustainability, efficiency, and transparency of energy systems, this study attempts to examine the possible uses of blockchain technology in the energy supply chain (ESC). The aim is to explore how blockchain technology can be integrated with cutting-edge technologies to maximize energy production, distribution, and consumption. Furthermore, by comparing different blockchain platforms (like Ethereum, Solana, Hedera, and Hyperledger Fabric), this article discusses the security and scalability challenges of using blockchain in energy systems. It also examines the practical use cases of blockchain for tokenization of RECs, dynamic energy pricing, and P2P energy trading by providing Energy Web Foundation and Power Ledger as real-world examples. This will advance the academic understanding of blockchain’s role in ESC and help policymakers, industrialists, and engineers or scientists working toward a more responsible, efficient, and environmentally conscious energy future.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Challenges and Opportunities in Traditional ESC

A study of the opportunities and challenges that current ESCM faces reveals a complex environment with a number of variables, including the energy sector’s overall efficiency, sustainability, and resilience. Figure 1 presents the various difficulties that come with managing ESC.
In Figure 1, it can be observed that the ESC involves many different stakeholders, each of which has its own processes and systems. This fragmentation can lead to inefficiencies and a lack of interoperability, which may hinder effective coordination and communication [29,30,31]. However, the traditional ESC finds it challenging to offer traceable and transparent data regarding energy production, distribution, and source [32,33,34]. Furthermore, this lack of visibility may make it challenging to verify the sustainability and environmental impact of energy sources. Numerous ESCs are harming the environment and accelerating climate change as a result of their heavy reliance on fossil fuels [35,36,37]. Therefore, there are many challenges to overcome when converting to more sustainable and greener energy sources, especially in regions where fossil fuels make up a large portion of the energy mixture. Additionally, as ESCs become more digitalised and networked, they are more susceptible to cybersecurity attacks [38]. The potential for cyberattacks on critical infrastructure poses a significant risk to the security and dependability of ESC [39,40]. Furthermore, different jurisdictions and regions have different laws and regulations that apply to the energy sector. It can be difficult for companies or enterprises to navigate these complicated regulatory frameworks, which have an impact on decision making and delay the adoption of innovative technologies [41,42,43]. Despite these challenges, there are several opportunities in the management of ESC, which are presented in Figure 2.
There is a chance to include renewable energy sources in the supply chain because sustainability is becoming more and more crucial. Additionally, moving to cleaner energy alternatives is made easier by technological developments and falling costs of renewable energy sources [44,45,46]. However, new technologies (such as blockchain) offer opportunities to improve the security, traceability, and transparency of ESC [5,6]. Several problems related to conventional ESCM may be resolved by a decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger of blockchain [10]. Additionally, the combination of the Internet of Things (IoT) and smart grid technologies offers customers live monitoring, control, and optimization of energy distribution [47,48,49]. This may result in increased grid resilience, decreased energy losses, and increased efficiency. Furthermore, grid stability, improved load management, and the economical use of energy resources can be achieved through the use of energy storage and demand response programs [50,51,52]. These measures provide opportunities to balance the dynamic supply and demand. Within the energy industry, there are opportunities for international collaboration and the development of standardized processes [53,54,55]. Therefore, interoperability, stakeholder communication, and the international energy trade can all be facilitated by common standards. Conclusively, the analysis of challenges and opportunities in the current ESCM highlights the necessity for innovative approaches to deal with inefficiencies, strengthen sustainability, and navigate the complexities of the changing energy environment. To overcome these obstacles and seize the opportunities for a more robust and sustainable ESC, companies and legislators must work together and adopt technological advancements.

2.2. Blockchain Technology and Its Potential in ESC

Cryptocurrencies are based on blockchain technology (a distributed and decentralized ledger system), but blockchain technology has many applications beyond cryptocurrency. Fundamentally, blockchain is just a series of blocks, each of which has a list of transactions [7]. The basic principles of blockchain are consensus, decentralization, immutability, and transparency. Since no single individual controls the entire blockchain in a decentralized network, manipulation and fraud are difficult to execute [9,10]. As the ledger is publicly accessible, all network users can see the transactions, which leads to achieving transparency [13,56]. Immutability provides a tamper-resistant record of data by ensuring that once a block is added to the chain, it cannot be removed or changed [57]. Further, trust is established among stakeholders by utilizing consensus mechanisms (proof-of-work or proof-of-stake) to validate and decide on the transaction order [58,59]. These concepts work together to establish a safe and dependable system where data are constantly tracked and available to all authorized parties. This system lays the groundwork for blockchain technology’s revolutionary potential to revolutionize several industries, including finance, supply chains, and energy. The existing literature on blockchain technology in ESC reflects an evolving area of research and innovation that is focused on addressing the challenges faced by the traditional energy sector. Several studies highlight the transformative potential of blockchain technology in enhancing transparency, traceability, and efficiency throughout the energy value cycle [60,61,62].
Researchers emphasise how blockchain technology can create decentralized and impenetrable ledgers that ensure an unalterable record of every energy transaction. This transparency is necessary to support cleaner alternatives, trace the origin of energy sources, and validate sustainability claims. In the literature, there is continuous concern about the use of smart contracts, which secure and automate peer-to-peer transactions, to facilitate decentralized energy trading [63,64]. Through the demonstration of effective implementations and the identification of challenges related to blockchain integration, case studies and pilot projects offer valuable insights into practical applications. Simultaneously, scientists explore the security aspects of blockchain by using its cryptographic capabilities to improve cybersecurity, reduce fraud, and develop strong defenses for vital energy infrastructure [65,66]. For example, the Energy Web Foundation started a pilot project in Georgia (USA) for the tokenization of REC using blockchain. This pilot project was designed to improve the efficiency and transparency of energy trading. The key results include a 20% reduction in transaction costs, the ability to process over 10,000 energy transactions in a 90-day trial period, and an average transaction speed for blockchain-based REC tokenization 2.5 times faster than conventional or traditional methods. This represents its scalability and real-time processing capabilities [67]. Another example includes P2P energy trading implemented by Power Ledger across various regions of Western Australia. It uses blockchain technology to allow houses with solar panels to trade excess electricity directly with other consumers, which bypasses the traditional energy distributor. The key results include over 300 energy transactions per day involving 500 participants in the P2P trading system, a 30% reduction in transaction costs compared to traditional models, and a 10% improvement in grid stability [68].
Furthermore, the Solana blockchain platform (known for parallel processing capabilities) is suitable for handling high transaction throughput in energy systems. It reported 65,000 transactions per second (TPS), which is a significant improvement compared to Ethereum (30 TPS) in its base layer. In comparison to Ethereum, energy usage for transaction processing on Solana is 99.9% lower due to the use of proof-of-history (PoH) consensus. This makes Solana comparatively much more energy efficient [69]. However, Hedera utilizes the gossip protocol to enhance the security and scalability of its blockchain platform. The Hedera network supports over 10,000 TPS in terms of transaction throughput in pilot programs. It has performed real-time energy trading between more than 100 users with a transaction confirmation time under 3 s. This shows its significantly faster speed compared to traditional energy trading systems [70]. Finally, Ethereum is still a major blockchain platform for decentralized applications in the energy sector, although it faces scalability challenges. It includes the Energy Web Token (EWT) used for energy asset trading. The integration of Layer-2 scaling solutions (such as Optimism and Arbitrum) on Ethereum has led to a 100-fold increase in transaction throughput. These Layer-2 solutions have reduced gas fees by over 90%, which makes Ethereum more feasible for energy trading applications at scale. The EWT has already observed over 1 million transactions since its launch and helps to facilitate the tokenization of energy assets (such as carbon credits and RECs) [71]. Additionally, a performance benchmark is summarized in Table 1, which highlights the real-world impact of blockchain in the energy sector. The literature also highlights the challenges in implementing blockchain technology in the complex environment of international energy markets by critically addressing problems with regulatory frameworks, interoperability, and scalability. In general, the existing literature provides an in-depth understanding of the complex ways in which blockchain technology is transforming ESC and leading the industry toward a more accessible, safe, and sustainable future. The various applications of blockchain that can work as a transformative force in promoting transparency and sustainability in ESC are provided in Figure 3. The existing literature has several research gaps, specifically in terms of empirical case studies, performance benchmarks, scalability, and integration with regulatory frameworks. Therefore, this study aims to bridge these gaps by providing real-world cases, quantitative performance metrics, and a deeper examination of the scalability of blockchain technology. Additionally, this article also discusses how blockchain can comply with global energy policies and regulations, such as the EU Green Deal and the Indian REC system. Therefore, this study utilizes a qualitative and descriptive research methodology, depending on an extensive literature review of recent articles, case studies, and technical reports related to the application of blockchain technology in ESC. Furthermore, peer-reviewed journals and industry whitepapers are analyzed to identify technological advancements, emerging trends, and challenges. The article is focused on a comparative evaluation of blockchain platforms (such as Ethereum, Polygon, Hyperledger Fabric, Solana, Hedera Hashgraph, and Polkadot) based on their compatibility for ESC applications. Furthermore, it also includes future developments (such as REC tokenization, smart contracts, and AI analytics) to offer a future perspective on the role of blockchain in transforming energy systems.

3. Transparency and Sustainability

3.1. Transparency in Energy Transactions

The decentralized and tamper-resistant ledger system of blockchain guarantees transparency in energy transactions. Fundamentally, blockchain functions as a distributed database in which all interconnected users have access to the same database. When an energy transaction takes place, it is added to the block, which is further cryptographically connected to the earlier block and thus generates a chain [5,6]. Due to the decentralized design, none of the individuals is allowed to control the entire ledger. Each individual can verify the integrity of the energy transaction [7]. Additionally, the immutability of blockchain ensures that earlier transactions cannot be changed in the past, making a safe and transparent record of the complete transaction history [8]. In the energy industry, transparency is very much essential because it provides all involved individuals (consumers, producers, regulators, and others) access to up-to-date and verifiable information regarding the sources, production, and distribution of energy [8,9]. Long-standing problems with opacity in energy transactions are solved by the transparent and auditable structure of blockchain, which promotes accountability and trust throughout the ESC [5]. For example, smart contracts are deployed on a public or permissioned network model, which can automate the issuing, tracking, and retirement of REC [77]. After the verification of renewable energy generation from a trusted source (data from smart meters), a smart contract can automatically generate and assign a corresponding digital REC token to the generator. These tokens represent verifiable proofs of renewable energy production as they stick to predefined standards [78]. Furthermore, transfers and retirements of these tokens are immutably recorded on the blockchain, which enhances transparency and reduces the chances of fraudulent activities. Additionally, smart contracts can be automated with algorithms that can automatically adjust energy prices based on real-time supply and demand situations [79]. Their integration with smart meters and IoT devices enables granular data input, which triggers price adjustments as defined within the logic of the contract. This automated dynamic pricing can improve the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources, optimize grid load, and incentivize the demand response [80].
An innovative advancement in blockchain technology, i.e., smart contracts, provides an advanced way to validate and automate transactions in a variety of sectors. Smart contracts are essentially self-executing contracts with pre-established terms and conditions. With blockchain, they take advantage of decentralized and impenetrable features of this technology to expedite transactions and guarantee their legitimacy [63,64]. Smart contracts are primarily used for the role of transaction automation. These contracts promote direct interactions between parties, thus reducing associated costs and delays by eliminating the need for middlemen or trusted third parties. For example, smart contracts can automate payment transfers in the context of financial transactions when certain conditions are satisfied, such as the delivery of goods or the accomplishment of project milestones [81,82]. This automation reduces the possibility of human error while increasing efficiency because the execution of the contract is completed by code. When circumstances demand conditional or sequential actions, the automation function of smart contracts is used [83,84]. For example, supply chain management (SCM) could create a smart contract that would automatically pay suppliers after goods are successfully delivered and verified by sensors or other Internet of Things (IoTs) devices [85,86]. This level of automation ensures that contractual obligations are met without the need for human intervention, leading to faster and more precise transactions. Furthermore, once a smart contract is deployed, its code and execution are visible and accessible to all connected participants, making it crucial for transaction validation [79,81]. Stakeholders can independently verify a contract’s terms and outcomes, which speeds up the validation process. This feature addresses issues of trust and accountability, particularly when parties may not have previously collaborated or may be in different legal jurisdictions.
The blockchain’s resistance to tampering ensures that smart contracts are immutable. Once executed and recorded on the blockchain, a contract becomes an unchangeable historical record [80,81]. This immutability provides a verifiable and auditable history of transactions and prohibits any retroactive changes to the terms of the contract. This feature is crucial for preserving a trustworthy and safe transaction environment and lowering the possibility of disputes or fraud [82,87]. The validation process in the area of legal agreements could be totally altered by these contracts. Traditional legal contracts usually involve costly and time-consuming processes for enforcement and verification. Conversely, smart contracts integrate contracts into code to enable automatic execution and enforcement. This accelerates the validation process and lessens reliance on legal intermediaries [79,83,88]. Though they have some issues, smart contracts have the potential to be revolutionary. For example, code may not always adequately address unexpected events or uncertain legal language. Furthermore, the irreversible nature of blockchain transactions may pose challenges when disputes arise or contract modifications are required [84,85,86].
Blockchain technology improves the general security of energy transactions while reducing fraud and mistakes. It employs cryptography to preserve the confidentiality and integrity of transaction data as well as to safeguard sensitive information [9,14]. This security feature is crucial in an era where cyber threats are a real possibility because of the energy sector’s increased digitization and connectivity [65,66]. However, blockchain does have certain drawbacks, despite the fact that it greatly lowers fraud, errors, and discrepancies. In order to deploy blockchain technology, industry stakeholders must cooperate and adhere to common standards and get past regulatory obstacles. Furthermore, there are certain scalability issues and technical difficulties with integrating blockchain into the current energy infrastructure that must be carefully taken into account in order to handle the volume of international energy transactions. Conclusively, it is clear that blockchain technology significantly reduces fraud, errors, and irregularities in energy transactions. The transparency, automation, and security features inherent in smart contracts and blockchain technology enable a more reliable, efficient, and trustworthy ESC. As the technology advances and gains traction, it is anticipated to have a transformative impact on preventing errors and reducing fraud in the energy sector, resulting in a more secure and resilient energy ecosystem.

3.2. Sustainability in Energy Transactions

The sustainability of ESC could be greatly increased by implementing blockchain technology. The blockchain’s decentralized and transparent architecture enables it to address important issues in the energy industry. Blockchain provides an unchangeable and impenetrable ledger, ensuring transparency in the production, distribution, and consumption of energy. Monitoring carbon emissions and verifying the reliability of renewable energy sources depend on this transparency [10,14]. Blockchain technology facilitates the development of transparent systems for Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and carbon tracking, giving stakeholders assurance and enabling the verification of the environmental aspects of energy transactions [24,29]. Additionally, smart contracts have the ability to automate and enforce sustainable practices. For example, smart contracts may encourage energy producers to adhere to specific sustainability standards by automatically rewarding compliance [81,82]. Furthermore, the P2P energy trading platform leverages smart contracts and allows prosumers (consumers who also generate or produce energy) to directly trade excess energy among different parties in a decentralized manner [28]. Smart contracts manage the terms (quantity and price), automate the energy transfer settlement upon verification using smart meters, and ensure secure payment without involving conventional intermediaries [89,90]. Additionally, in a real-world scenario, Energy Web is an international non-profit organization developing an open-source technology solution for a low-carbon and customer-centric energy system. The development of applications for grid flexibility, REC tracking, and clean energy procurement is made simple by their work on the Energy Web Chain and related tools [91]. Moreover, Power Ledger is an Australian tech company developing a blockchain-based platform for decentralized energy trading, tracking RECs, and other energy management applications. Their numerous pilot projects across the globe showcase the feasibility of dynamic pricing and P2P trading [27]. Overall, blockchain plays a significant role in creating a more sustainable and ecologically aware ESC by promoting openness, rewarding sustainability, and automating compliance.
Blockchain-based investigation of the origin and traceability of energy sources presents a fresh approach to recurring issues in the energy sector. Blockchain technology offers a comprehensive and transparent traceability mechanism through its decentralized and impenetrable ledger, making it an innovative method of verifying and authenticating the source of energy [28,92]. The legitimacy of claims made about sustainability and renewable energy is called into question because traditional ESC frequently fail to disclose the provenance of energy—where it comes from, how it is made, and how it impacts the environment. On the other hand, blockchain creates an auditable trail from the energy production point to the energy consumption point [93,94]. Every energy transaction (whether it uses renewable energy or fossil fuels) is safely and permanently documented in chronological order on the blockchain. This guarantees that the history of the energy industry and its path are transparent and available to all parties involved in the system, such as producers, consumers, and regulatory organizations [92,94]. However, tracing the provenance becomes even more important for renewable energy sources (like wind and solar). This is due to the resistant-to-tampering nature of blockchain, which eliminates the possibility of fraudulent statements or inaccurate reporting, offering a verifiable record that validates the legitimacy of renewable energy production [95,96]. Traceability procedures are crucially automated and enforced by smart contracts, which are an essential component of blockchain technology. These self-executing contracts can encode particular requirements concerning regulatory compliance, emissions reduction targets, and sustainability standards [83,84]. For example, when a specific quantity of energy is produced from renewable sources, a smart contract may automatically cause the issuance of RECs. These RECs provide an auditable and transparent way to verify that sustainable practices are being followed throughout the supply chain and are represented as tokens on the blockchain [24,27].
Furthermore, sensors and IoTs devices that monitor energy production and distribution can be more easily integrated with blockchain. Real-time data can be directly fed into the blockchain by these devices, creating a dynamic and up-to-date energy transaction ledger. As a result of this real-time traceability, data on origin are more responsive and accurate, enabling stakeholders to base their decisions on the most up-to-date information [85,86]. In the context of international energy trade, where energy may traverse several borders and regulatory jurisdictions, blockchain’s traceability features become especially valuable. The technology can speed up cross-border transactions by providing a secure and verifiable record of the energy’s origin and regulatory compliance [82,83]. This reduces the administrative load associated with international energy transactions and encourages greater trust among global stakeholders. Despite the numerous advantages of using blockchain to investigate origin and traceability, there are still certain obstacles to be addressed [27,81]. For example, blockchain adoption in the energy sector requires industry-wide cooperation and standardized protocols. Addressing platform interoperability concerns and ensuring regulatory alignment are also critical to achieving the full potential of blockchain-based traceability. In conclusion, the use of blockchain technology to investigate the origin and traceability of energy sources marks an important change in the energy sector toward transparency and accountability. By leveraging the decentralized ledger and smart contract capabilities of blockchain technology, the energy industry can improve consumer trust, streamline regulatory compliance, and promote a more reliable and sustainable energy landscape. As blockchain technology advances, it has the potential to completely transform global energy trade, consumption, and understanding by offering transparent traceability for energy sources. Additionally, a comparison between the traditional ESC and blockchain-integrated ESC is provided in Table 2, which summarizes why blockchain integration in the ESC is essential.

4. Challenges in Implementing Blockchain

Blockchain technology offers a revolutionary opportunity for ESC, but it also has a number of limitations. It is necessary to comprehend and tackle these challenges or barriers in order to effectively incorporate blockchain technology into the intricate environment of the energy industry. Several challenges and barriers are provided in Figure 4. Blockchain networks that handle a large number of transactions, especially public ones, might run into scalability issues. Scalability becomes a critical concern as ESC involves multiple transactions. Scaling solutions like sharding and layer-two protocols are being investigated. However, they have not been widely adopted or implemented yet [97,98]. Moreover, there are many different types of stakeholders in the energy sector, and they all use different technologies and systems. Therefore, it is difficult to achieve interoperability between blockchain platforms and current systems. Thus, to guarantee smooth communication and data exchange between various stakeholders in the ESC, standardization efforts are crucial [99]. Since the energy industry is heavily regulated, integrating blockchain necessitates adhering to current laws. However, the decentralized and transparent features of blockchain technology may not be well-suited for regulatory frameworks. Therefore, industry and regulatory bodies must work together to understand the complex process of interacting with legislators to modify regulations and guarantee compliance [100].
Even though blockchain has built-in security features, protecting sensitive data privacy is still a problem. Energy transactions often involve sensitive data, so it can be difficult to achieve a balance between data privacy and transparency. To address these concerns, advanced cryptographic techniques and privacy-focused solutions are being investigated [101]. Some blockchain networks have come under fire for using excessive amounts of energy, particularly those that employ proof-of-work consensus techniques. Therefore, the environmental impact of blockchain technology becomes an important consideration in an industry that aspires to sustainability. To lessen this difficulty, consensus-building techniques and the adoption of more energy-efficient substitutes are essential [102]. Moreover, the stakeholders of the energy sector are not well-informed about blockchain technology, which is still in its early stages. Therefore, it is essential to educate the public, legislators, and business leaders about the advantages and difficulties of blockchain technology in order to promote acceptance and enable its broad implementation [103].
Further, the initial setup costs for implementing blockchain technology include creating smart contracts, integrating them with current systems, and establishing a safe blockchain network. Therefore, certain organizations may find it difficult to make the necessary financial commitment, especially those that are less dominant in the energy industry. Despite their strength, smart contracts can have weaknesses. For example, coding errors may result in unexpected outcomes and security lapses. Therefore, ensuring the security and dependability of smart contracts in the ESC requires extremely strict auditing and testing protocols [104]. Moreover, the energy industry already has systems and procedures in place, so implementing blockchain necessitates a major adjustment to operational procedures and mindset. Thus, the adoption of blockchain technology may be limited by the resistance of industry stakeholders to change since they may be comfortable with conventional techniques [105,106]. The regulatory landscape around blockchain technology in the ESC system is essential for its widespread adoption and alignment with sustainability targets. Thus, the EU Green Deal and the REC system of India provide policy guidelines for the integration of renewable energy technologies and the adoption of blockchain in energy transactions [107,108]. The EU Green Deal consists of a comprehensive set of policy initiatives that seek to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050. It describes the purpose of digital technologies (blockchain) in transforming energy systems. This will be achieved through the tokenization of REC and the promotion of decentralized energy trading platforms. Furthermore, India’s REC system sets an important precedent for blockchain adoption in energy trading, along with the promotion of renewable energy generation. This system allows renewable energy producers to earn RECs and sell them to conventional energy producers to meet their renewable purchase obligations (RPO) [109]. However, blockchain can enhance this system by automating REC issuance and real-time tracking through smart contracts. This will improve the accuracy and security of energy trading records, which will subsequently reduce fraud and increase market efficiency. Moreover, it is important to address regulatory challenges around blockchain technology to ensure that energy systems remain compliant with these evolving policies. Blockchain’s integration in decentralized energy systems must comply with regional regulations related to data privacy, carbon emissions tracking, and cross-border trading. However, future regulations should focus on interoperability standards to ensure seamless interaction between different blockchain systems utilized across regions and countries. This will be essential for the future development of cross-border energy markets.

5. Future Directions and Opportunities

5.1. Future Development in Blockchain

The future advancements in blockchain technology for ESC have the potential to completely change the industry, promote sustainability, and boost productivity. The use of blockchain technology in energy is anticipated to be shaped by a number of significant trends and innovations, which are presented in Figure 5. However, the selection of an appropriate blockchain platform is essential for successfully employing blockchain in energy applications. This is due to the varying consensus mechanisms, scalability solutions, and network (private, public, or hybrid) models offered by different platforms. Polygon and Ethereum are well suited for P2P energy trading and a decentralized renewable energy marketplace due to their public and decentralized nature [110,111]. Polygon (as a Layer-2 scaling solution for Ethereum) provides significantly low transaction fees and faster finality. This makes it practically applicable for high-frequency micro-transactions, which are common in energy trading [111]. Additionally, Hyperledger Fabric is ideal for regulated carbon credit tracking and enterprise-managed energy consortia due to its private and permissioned blockchain model, which offers modular consensus and improved privacy controls [112]. However, Solana and Hedera Hashgraph offer unique scalability benefits, which are essential for real-time data management and IoT-integrated smart grids. Solana achieves high throughput (up to 65,000 TPS) through its sea level parallel transaction processing engine, which allows multiple smart contracts to run simultaneously [113]. On the other hand, Hedera utilizes the gossip-about-gossip protocol and virtual voting to attain thousands of transactions per second with finality in seconds. Also, it does not require extensive proof-of-work computation [114,115,116]. Moreover, Polkadot offers a hybrid model through its parachain architecture for interoperability across different energy markets and systems [117]. It allows private, public, and consortium blockchains to interoperate securely, which allows localized energy systems to connect to broader national or international grids [118]. Therefore, the selection of a blockchain platform must align with the specific requirements of the energy application in terms of transaction volume, decentralization, privacy, security, and regulations (summarized in Table 3).
Furthermore, it is anticipated that blockchain and IoT will work more in collaboration, allowing ESC to automate and monitor in real time. IoT devices (such as smart meters and sensors) can securely transmit data to the blockchain, enhancing transparency and providing a more accurate and up-to-date view of energy transactions [23,71]. The integration of these systems is expected to enhance grid management, facilitate asset tracking, and enhance overall energy efficiency. However, there will probably be a greater effort toward the tokenization of energy assets, such as RECs. Blockchain makes it easier to create digital tokens that represent rights or ownership of energy assets, which, in return, facilitates the trade and verification of the generation of renewable energy [14,109]. This has the potential to open up new financing options and boost market liquidity for energy. Moreover, there is hope for the development of blockchain-driven decentralized energy trading platforms. There will be an increase in the use of peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading, which allows customers to trade excess energy with one another directly [63,116]. This disintermediation creates a more resilient and distributed energy ecosystem, which increases the democratization of energy and encourages the use of renewable energy sources.
The advanced privacy features of ESC are probably in store for future blockchain developments. Technologies that protect privacy, like zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs), will handle sensitive data problems while maintaining the transparency needed for auditability [65,103]. This will guarantee that participants can gain from blockchain security without sacrificing privacy. Additionally, ESC will be more dynamic as a result of smart contracts’ ability to provide flexible pricing options and automated demand response. In order to optimize energy use during times of lower demand or higher renewable energy generation, smart contracts have the ability to modify pricing based on current supply and demand conditions [63,64]. Further, it is anticipated that blockchain will become more useful in enabling international energy transactions. Features, such as transparency, impenetrable ledgers, and smart contracts, can lower transaction costs, improve trust between parties, and expedite international energy trading. This may lead to a more integrated global energy market.
Future blockchain developments for ESC will probably involve greater collaboration between legislators and industry players. The decentralized nature of blockchain technology will be accommodated by regulatory frameworks that ensure compliance [117]. In order to enable the smooth integration of blockchain solutions throughout the energy sector, standardization efforts will advance and produce a common set of protocols and interoperability standards. Additionally, initiatives to reduce emissions and track carbon credits will continue to rely heavily on blockchain technology. To ensure the authenticity of carbon credits and support international efforts to combat climate change, transparent and verifiable blockchain systems will be used to track the impact of emission reduction projects [118]. However, predictive analytics in ESC could be improved by integrating blockchain technology and artificial intelligence (AI). The blockchain data can be analyzed by AI algorithms to predict energy consumption, enhance grid performance, and identify chances to increase energy efficiency [119]. Conclusively, to fully realize the potential of blockchain in ESC, collaboration between technology developers, players in the energy industry, and regulatory bodies will be crucial as these trends develop. The global energy landscape is expected to enter a new era of transparency, efficiency, and sustainability because of the ongoing development of blockchain technology.

5.2. Emerging Trends

There are several emerging trends (shown in Figure 6) that try to improve the traditional energy sector using blockchain technology. Hybrid blockchain solutions, which include aspects of public and private blockchains, are becoming more and more popular [120]. This method combines the privacy and control aspects of private blockchains with the transparency and decentralization benefits of public blockchains. Hybrid models provide flexibility for diverse use cases within the energy sector. For example, Energy Web Tokens (EWTs) are tokens that are designed specifically for the energy industry [9,71]. These tokens are utilized to conduct transactions and interact more easily within the energy blockchain ecosystems.
Furthermore, cryptocurrencies are starting to be used in energy transactions, offering a decentralized and effective way to exchange values [71]. Additionally, initiatives to offset carbon emissions are increasingly using blockchain technology. The tokenization of environmental impact, allowing the tracking and trading of carbon credits on the blockchain, provides a novel approach to resolving concerns regarding climate change [118]. The increased focus on sustainability in the energy industry is consistent with this trend. Moreover, an emerging trend is the integration of blockchain technology and edge computing. In energy systems, edge computing can improve the effectiveness of data processing for IoT devices. It lowers the latency period and enhances the overall responsiveness of blockchain applications in the energy sector by processing data closer to the source [119,120]. Finally, blockchain is enabling the growth of interconnected energy markets, which is opening up new possibilities for decentralized energy trading [63,110]. The development of virtual power plants, community-based energy projects, and peer-to-peer energy transactions is creating a more dynamic and interconnected energy landscape.

5.3. Opportunities for Research and Industry Adoption

There are various opportunities (shown in Figure 7) in the integration of blockchain technology and the energy sector for industry adoption and future research work. There are research opportunities to investigate the security and resilience of blockchain networks against potential attacks and cyber threats [38,40]. For the adoption of blockchain-based energy systems in the industry, it will be essential to create strong security protocols and run simulations to gauge their resilience. Further research is required to create and modify regulatory frameworks that the energy industry can use to include blockchain technology. However, to ensure compliance with current regulations, research can concentrate on comprehending the legal implications of tokenized assets, smart contracts, and decentralized systems [110,111]. Additionally, solving scalability problems presents an important research opportunity. For wider industry adoption, the research and development of scalable blockchain network solutions will be essential, particularly in the context of ESC with high transaction volumes [97,98]. Further, research can look into educational programs and user experience elements to raise awareness and comprehension of blockchain technology in the energy sector. However, smoother industry adoption can be achieved through developing educational programs, conducting usability studies, and improving user interfaces [103,106].
There is a research opportunity to examine blockchain and AI collaborations. It is possible to improve overall efficiency and performance in energy systems by comprehending how AI algorithms can use blockchain data for predictive analytics, optimization, and decision making [121]. Further, the energy industry can benefit from research efforts aimed at developing and advocating for blockchain interoperability standards. The widespread acceptance will be aided by the development of common protocols that permit smooth data exchange and communication between various blockchain platforms [122]. Furthermore, with the advancements in quantum computing, investigating quantum-safe blockchain solutions becomes essential. Research into developing quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms can ensure the long-term security of blockchain-based energy systems [123]. Finally, the potential use of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs) for energy project management and supervision is a research area to investigate [124,125]. The governance and decision-making procedures present in decentralized energy ecosystems could be totally changed by the DAOs. Therefore, as these trends and opportunities emerge, cooperation between researchers, industry professionals, and legislators will be essential to fully utilizing blockchain technology in the evolving energy systems landscape.

6. Conclusions

This study has comprehensively explored the transformative potential of blockchain technology in the energy supply chain (ESC) and demonstrated its capacity to enhance security, transparency, and sustainability across the energy sector. One of the most important characteristics of blockchain technology in ESC is its ability to create immutable and transparent ledgers, which ensures the traceability, security, and auditability of energy transactions. Blockchain technology eliminates the requirement of centralized intermediaries by utilizing smart contracts and decentralized consensus mechanisms. Smart contracts enhance transaction efficiency by reducing settlement times from 5–10 min in traditional systems to about 2–3 s in blockchain platforms (such as Solana and Hedera). The key finding indicates that various blockchain platforms offer varying advantages depending on their specific energy applications. For example, Ethereum and its Layer-2 scaling solution, Polygon, are ideal for peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading and decentralized renewable marketplaces. This is because of their high throughput and cost-efficient transaction processing capabilities. For example, Polygon can finalize a transaction in approximately 2.1 s with an average fee of less than USD 0.01, which makes it suitable for frequent micro-transactions in P2P trading. Additionally, empirical evidence, like the blockchain-based platform known as Power Ledger across various regions of Western Australia, demonstrates how prosumers can trade surplus energy within a local network. This will reduce grid dependency by up to 30% and enhance energy democratization. Similarly, the permissioned model of Hyperledger Fabric makes it suitable for regulated applications such as carbon credit tracking and enterprise energy consortia. However, blockchain platforms such as Solana and Hedera Hashgraph provide high-throughput and low-latency solutions that are necessary for real-time energy data management and IoT-integrated smart grids. The parallel transaction processing engine of Solana reaches up to 65,000 transactions per second (TPS) with a 400 ms block time, where the gossip-about-gossip protocol of Hedera reaches over 10,000 TPS with finality within 3–5 s. Therefore, Solana and Hedera Hashgraph allow for the seamless integration of high-frequency sensor data, which are important for smart meters and predictive grid analytics. Moreover, the interoperable parachain structure of Polkadot allows seamless communication across private, public, and consortium blockchains, which provides a robust framework for localized grid integration and cross-border energy trade. These capabilities are essential for developing interoperable national and international energy markets, where localized systems connect to global grids.
In addition to platform-specific advantages, several emerging trends were identified that can further accelerate blockchain adoption in the energy sector. The increasing integration of blockchain with IoT devices, edge computing, and artificial intelligence (AI) enables real-time automation, predictive maintenance, dynamic pricing, and efficient management of the demand side. For example, smart sensors and smart meters can continuously feed verifiable data into blockchain networks, which improves grid reliability and customer engagement. Edge computing reduces latency by processing these data locally and increasing the responsiveness and scalability of blockchain applications in ESC. Furthermore, the tokenization of energy assets (renewable energy certificates (REC) and carbon credits) has opened new financing models and market liquidity options. For example, Power Ledger enables users to track, verify, and trade REC across jurisdictions, which offers incentives for green energy adoption. Additionally, zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs) and zk-rollups technologies enable privacy-preserving data sharing without compromising auditability, which is important for compliance with regulatory standards in sensitive energy transactions. Therefore, several actionable recommendations can be made based on these findings. First, the selection of an appropriate blockchain platform should depend on specific use-case requirements—for example, public platforms (Ethereum and Polygon) for decentralized and transparent P2P trading, private or consortium-based models (Hyperledger Fabric) for regulated and enterprise-scale applications, and hybrid systems (Polkadot) for cross-border interoperability. Second, governments and regulators should collaborate to establish a flexible and adaptive legal structure that accommodates decentralized technologies while ensuring compliance and consumer protection. This includes recognizing smart contracts and tokenized assets within legal terms and encouraging standardization through interoperability protocols. Third, investments should be directed toward the development of quantum-resistant cryptographic solutions to future-proof blockchain systems against potential threats posed by quantum computing. Additionally, a public–private partnership should be formed in order to develop scalable infrastructure that supports distributed energy resources and smart contract-enabled load balancing.
However, educational outreach and capacity-building programs are necessary for increasing awareness and user adoption. The development of usability studies and the development of user-centric interfaces make blockchain-based energy systems accessible to a broader audience (consumers, prosumers, and utility operators). Furthermore, industry adoption can be enhanced through pilot projects, as their performance can be validated under real-world conditions. These pilot projects should focus on integrating blockchain with existing energy systems, testing the effectiveness of AI-blockchain integration in energy forecasting, and analyzing the resilience of blockchain networks under cyber threat simulations. Finally, a novel governance model for community-driven energy projects is represented by decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs). DAOs can facilitate the transparent and democratic management of shared energy assets and infrastructures by utilizing blockchain-based voting and decision-making mechanisms. Thus, blockchain technology has the potential to modernize ESC by enhancing real-time monitoring, transparency, supporting renewable integration, and democratizing energy access.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.G. and A.M.; methodology, N.G., A.A., and A.M.; software, N.G. and A.S.; validation, N.G., A.A., and D.C.; formal analysis, N.G. and A.M.; investigation, A.M. and A.S.; resources, D.C.; data curation, A.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M. and A.S.; writing—review and editing, N.G. and D.C.; visualization, A.A.; supervision, N.G.; funding acquisition, D.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Several challenges faced during the management of ESC.
Figure 1. Several challenges faced during the management of ESC.
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Figure 2. Several opportunities in the management of energy supply chain.
Figure 2. Several opportunities in the management of energy supply chain.
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Figure 3. (a) The technical architectural flowchart representing interaction between blockchain platforms with IoT devices, smart contracts, and user terminals and (b) several methods that can promote transparency and sustainability in ESC.
Figure 3. (a) The technical architectural flowchart representing interaction between blockchain platforms with IoT devices, smart contracts, and user terminals and (b) several methods that can promote transparency and sustainability in ESC.
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Figure 4. Several challenges and barriers faced during the implementation of blockchain in ESC.
Figure 4. Several challenges and barriers faced during the implementation of blockchain in ESC.
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Figure 5. Several potential future innovations in blockchain technology.
Figure 5. Several potential future innovations in blockchain technology.
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Figure 6. Several emerging trends in the energy sector.
Figure 6. Several emerging trends in the energy sector.
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Figure 7. Several opportunities for future research and industry adoption.
Figure 7. Several opportunities for future research and industry adoption.
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Table 1. Summarization of performance benchmark for traditional versus blockchain-integrated energy systems [72,73,74,75,76].
Table 1. Summarization of performance benchmark for traditional versus blockchain-integrated energy systems [72,73,74,75,76].
S.No.ParametersTraditional ESCESC with BlockchainEnergy Consumption (Per Transaction)
1Transaction speed5 to 10 min (centralized)2 to 3 s (Solana, Hedera)Solana~0.00051 kWh
Hedera~0.000003 kWh Traditional~1.0 kW/h
2Transaction costHigh (due to intermediaries)20–30% reduction (Power Ledger, EWF)Lower operational costs from reduced intermediary steps
3ScalabilityLowHigh (Solana, Hedera)Solana and Hedera optimized for large-scale and low-energy operations
4Environmental impactHigh (energy consumption)99.9% lower (Solana vs. Ethereum)Ethereum (PoW)~60–100 kW/h and Solana/Hedera is negligible in comparison
5Grid stabilityLow (centralized)10% improvement (Power Ledger)Efficient energy flow reduces load spikes and energy wastage
6Energy trading efficiencyLow (limited P2P capabilities)High (Power Ledger, EWT, Solana)Lower transaction energy footprint due to streamlined direct transactions
Table 2. Comparison between traditional and blockchain-integrated ESC system.
Table 2. Comparison between traditional and blockchain-integrated ESC system.
S. No.ParametersTraditional ESCESC with Blockchain
1TransparencyOften opaque and difficult to trace energy originHighly transparent and immutable record of transactions and energy origin
2Data managementCentralized and potential for data manipulation and errorsDistributed, consensus-based validation, and enhanced data integrity
3Transaction costsMay be high due to intermediaries and manual processesPotentially lower due to automation and disintermediation
4Sustainability trackingDifficult to verify renewable energy claims effectivelyTransparent tracking of RECs and verifiable origin of green energy
5SecurityVulnerable to single points of failure and cyber threatsDecentralized, cryptographically secured, and tamper-resistant
6P2P tradingLimited and often requires complex infrastructureFacilitated through decentralized platforms and smart contracts
7EfficiencyCan involve intermediaries and manual processesStreamlined processes through smart contracts and reduced intermediaries
Table 3. Summarization of different blockchain platforms that align with specific energy sector use cases by considering their network models and scalability features.
Table 3. Summarization of different blockchain platforms that align with specific energy sector use cases by considering their network models and scalability features.
S.No.Use CaseBlockchain PlatformNetwork ModelScalability Feature
1P2P energy tradingPolygon/EthereumPublicPolygon Layer-2 scaling for fast and low-cost transactions
2Community-based renewable energy marketsPolygon/EthereumPublicHigh throughput and decentralized network
3Carbon credit trackingHyperledger FabricPrivate/PermissionedModular consensus and improved privacy controls
4Real-time energy data managementHedera HashgraphPublic/PermissionedGossip-about-gossip protocol and virtual voting
5IoT-integrated smart gridsSolanaPublicSea-level parallel transaction processing (65,000 TPS)
6Cross-grid interoperability (local, national, international)PolkadotHybridParachain interoperability across different blockchains
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Gariya, N.; Asrani, A.; Mandal, A.; Shaikh, A.; Cha, D. A Comprehensive Analysis of Integrating Blockchain Technology into the Energy Supply Chain for the Enhancement of Transparency and Sustainability. Energies 2025, 18, 2951. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112951

AMA Style

Gariya N, Asrani A, Mandal A, Shaikh A, Cha D. A Comprehensive Analysis of Integrating Blockchain Technology into the Energy Supply Chain for the Enhancement of Transparency and Sustainability. Energies. 2025; 18(11):2951. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112951

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gariya, Narendra, Anjas Asrani, Adhirath Mandal, Amir Shaikh, and Dowan Cha. 2025. "A Comprehensive Analysis of Integrating Blockchain Technology into the Energy Supply Chain for the Enhancement of Transparency and Sustainability" Energies 18, no. 11: 2951. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112951

APA Style

Gariya, N., Asrani, A., Mandal, A., Shaikh, A., & Cha, D. (2025). A Comprehensive Analysis of Integrating Blockchain Technology into the Energy Supply Chain for the Enhancement of Transparency and Sustainability. Energies, 18(11), 2951. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18112951

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