Alcohols as Biofuel for a Diesel Engine with Blend Mode—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Blend and Fumigation as Dual-Fuel Operation in Diesel Engine
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- efficiency and specific fuel consumption: these are of primary concern to engine users, as higher efficiency results in lower operating costs;
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- combustion process parameters: this aspect is mainly of interest to researchers working on similar topics, as controlling the combustion process is crucial for achieving high engine efficiency, which leads to lower fuel consumption;
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- engine stability: this is particularly important for engines powering electric generators that are connected to the power grid;
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- exhaust emissions: nowadays, this is arguably the most critical aspect of engine performance evaluation, particularly in terms of assessing GHG emissions.
3. Characteristics of Alcohol Fuels
4. Methodology
- efficiency and specific fuel consumption, which are of primary interest to engine users, as higher efficiency translates to lower operating costs;
- combustion process parameters; this issue is mainly relevant to researchers dealing with similar topics, as controlling the combustion process determines high engine efficiency, i.e., low fuel consumption;
- engine stability; this is a crucial issue, especially for engines powering electricity generators that operate in conjunction with the power grid;
- emissions; nowadays, this is perhaps the most important aspect of evaluating not only piston engine performance but also the assessment of GHG emissions.
5. Effect of Blended Diesel/Alcohol on Combustion, Performance, Stability, and Emissions of a CI Engine
- Diesel/methanol blends
- Diesel/ethanol blends
- Diesel/propanol blends
- Diesel/butanol blends
- Diesel/pentanol blends
- Diesel/hexanol blends
- Diesel/heptanol blends
- Diesel/octanol blends
5.1. Combustion
5.1.1. Maximum In-Cylinder Pressure (pmax)
5.1.2. Maximum Heat Release Rate (HRRmax)
5.1.3. Maximum Peak Pressure Rise (PPRmax)
5.1.4. Ignition Delay (ID)
5.1.5. Combustion Duration (CD)
5.2. Performance
5.2.1. Thermal Efficiency (TE)
5.2.2. Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)
5.3. Stability
Coefficient of Variation of Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (COVimep)
5.4. Emissions
5.4.1. NOx Emissions
5.4.2. HC Emissions
5.4.3. CO Emissions
5.4.4. CO2 Emissions
5.4.5. Soot Emissions
6. Discussion
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
- the addition of alcohol fuel to diesel in CI engines increases ignition delay, with a greater increase corresponding to a higher volumetric share of alcohol. The highest ignition delay was observed with the diesel/methanol blend (57%);
- combustion of a blend containing alcohol generally resulted in an increase in pmax compared to pure diesel combustion (by approximately 15–20%). Higher volumetric shares of alcohol resulted in progressively higher pmax values. The highest pmax was achieved with short- and medium-chain alcohols, such as methanol, propanol, butanol, and pentanol;
- an increase in the volumetric share of alcohol in the diesel blend, up to 30%, is associated with an increase in PPRmax, with the highest pressure rise rates observed with diesel and propanol blends (approximately 70%). Unfortunately, the increase in pmax and PPRmax also leads to higher mechanical loads on the engine, which may reduce its durability;
- higher alcohol content leads to an increase in HRRmax. Diesel combustion with the addition of methanol, ethanol, and butanol up to 30% showed the highest HRRmax values, even up to approximately 80% higher compared to diesel alone;
- the effect of alcohol fuel on the combustion duration of diesel/alcohol blends in CI engines is not straightforward. Most studies indicate a reduction in combustion duration with an increase in alcohol volumetric share, with the shortest CD observed in diesel with methanol and ethanol (approximately 50%). Increased heat release rates and shorter combustion durations may lead to higher instantaneous thermal loads on the engine cylinder, potentially worsening the lubricating properties of the engine oil;
- the addition of alcohol to diesel in CI engines can either improve or worsen thermal efficiency. For simple, short-chain alcohols, thermal efficiency (TE) increased, with the highest TE for the diesel/methanol blend (approximately 15%). For complex alcohols, TE decreased (by approximately 10%). This inconsistency in results may be due to the lack of optimization of the engine’s thermal cycle (CA50), which should be conducted for each adapted engine;
- the addition of alcohol to diesel slightly deteriorates the stability of CI engine operation, as defined by the COVimep coefficient (approximately 60%);
- most studies indicate a positive impact of alcohol fuel addition to diesel on NOx emissions in CI engines, with the greatest reductions in emissions reaching approximately 50%;
- based on the literature review, it is not possible to definitively determine the impact of alcohol fuel addition on HC emissions from CI engines. The largest increase in hydrocarbon emissions was observed with propanol, butanol, and hexanol (approximately 100%). However, diesel blends with methanol and octanol resulted in the greatest reduction in HC emissions (approximately 60%);
- the reviewed studies do not conclusively answer how alcohol fuels co-combusted with diesel affect CO and CO2 concentrations in CI engine exhaust. Unburned hydrocarbon and CO emissions are closely related to the so-called gap effect, which is a consequence of engine design. The literature does not specify the volumetric share of gaps relative to the combustion chamber volume, which could provide insight into emission evaluation;
- the addition of alcohol fuel to diesel contributes to a reduction in soot emissions from CI engines. For all analyzed alcohols (except ethanol), increasing the volumetric share of alcohol in the diesel blend resulted in a greater reduction in soot emissions (up to approximately 90%). Authors often limit their evaluation to soot emissions, but a comprehensive assessment should also include PM emissions divided into different fractions.
- optimization of alcohol blends for optimal engine performance: due to the variety of research setups, results are inconsistent, making it difficult to definitively determine the most beneficial ratio of individual alcohols in diesel blends for engine performance. Research should focus on identifying the optimal blend and exploring the potential for additives that enhance and stabilize these mixtures;
- engine design aspects: adaptation of engines to operate on alcohol blends involves modifications to injection systems and engine control strategies. Research should investigate the best practices for integrating these adaptations to improve engine performance and reliability;
- durability testing: there appears to be the most work needed in this area. The literature reveals a gap in studies on the long-term effects of high alcohol content on engine durability, particularly for naturally aspirated and turbocharged engines under various loads;
- exhaust emissions: development work is recommended on exhaust cleaning systems, particularly for NOx and particulate matter (PM). Research should focus on advancing these systems to meet emission standards effectively;
- economic analysis (LCA—Life Cycle Assessment): a comprehensive approach is proposed, including an economic analysis covering the entire life cycle of alcohol fuels. This should include the production process, the economic impact of engine operation, exhaust emissions, recycling of engine components, and the economics of fuel distribution. Additionally, the feasibility of producing alcohols from agricultural waste and lignocellulosic biomass should be evaluated.
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
AVF | alcohol volume fraction |
TE | thermal efficiency |
SFC | specific fuel consumption |
HRR | heat release rate |
PPR | peak pressure rise |
COVimep | coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure |
LHV | lower heating value |
CI | compression ignition |
SI | spark ignition |
ID | ignition delay |
CD | combustion duration |
p | pressure |
n | engine speed |
TDC | top dead center |
CH3OH | methanol |
C2H5OH | ethanol |
C3H7OH | propanol |
C4H9OH | butanol |
C5H11OH | pentanol |
C6H13OH | hexanol |
C7H15OH | heptanol |
C8H17OH | octanol |
O2 | oxygen |
H2 | hydrogen |
C | carbon |
NOx | nitrogen oxides |
NO | nitrogen monoxide |
HC | hydrocarbons |
CO | carbon monoxide |
CO2 | carbon dioxide |
GHG | greenhouse gas |
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Fuel | Diesel | Methanol | Ethanol | Propanol | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular Formula | CnH1.8n (C8–C20) | CH3OH | C2H5OH | C3H7OH | ||||
Molar mass (g/mol) | 190–220 142 | [23] [24] | 32 32.04 | [23,25,26] [25,27,28,29,30] | 46 46.07 | [25,26,31,32,33] [24,29,34] | 60.1 60.065 | [24,29,35] [36] |
Density at 1 bar, 20 °C (kg/m3) | 840 830 | [23,26,27,30] [25] | 790 796 | [23,25] [27,30] | 780 790 | [24] [33] | 785 815 | [35] [36] |
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm/s2) | 2.6 2.86 | [32] [37] | 0.58 0.65 | [28,37,38] [30] | 1.2 1.1 | [32,34] [39] | 1.74 2.497 | [37,38,40,41,42] [35] |
Cetane number | 40–55 52 | [23] [24,28,40] | 2 5 | [29,37] [28,38,43] | 5–8 11 | [25] [29] | <15 12 | [24] [29,36,37,38,40,41,42] |
Autoignition temperature (°C) | 180–240 254–300 | [26] [28,40,44] | 470 463 | [23,25] [27,28] | 360 425 | [26] [31] | 350 399 | [29,36,37,38,40] [42] |
Stoichiometric A/F ratio | 15 14.3 | [32] [42] | 6.4 6.47 | [26] [28] | 9 8.97 | [32] [45] | 10.35 10.4 | [36] [42] |
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | 44.5 42.49 | [24,26] [28,40] | 19.5 22.7 | [27] [43] | 23.8 29.8 | [26] [24] | 33.6 29.82 | [24,37] [40] |
Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) | 250–290 270–37 | [23] [28,40] | 1178 1100 | [23,24] [26,27] | 840 923 | [31,32] [24] | 790 727.88 | [24] [29,37,38,40] |
Hydrogen content (wt%) | 14 13 | [23] [27] | 12.6 12.48 | [24] [29,44] | 13 13.02 | [31] [28,29] | 13.4 13.31 | [24,36] [29,40] |
Carbon content (wt%) | 86 84–87 | [23] [24] | 37.5 37.48 | [23,27,40] [28,29] | 52.2 52.14 | [24,31] [28,29] | 60 59.96 | [24,36] [29] |
Oxygen content (wt%) | 0 | [23,27,40] | 50 49.9 | [23,27,30] [24] | 34.8 34.7 | [31,32,33] [24,29] | 26.6 26.62 | [24,36,42] [29,40,46] |
Fuel | Butanol | Pentanol | Hexanol | Heptanol | Octanol | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular Formula | C4H9OH | C5H11OH | C6H13OH | C7H15OH | C8H17OH | |||||
Molar mass (g/mol) | 74 74.123 | [32] [34] | 88.15 | [32,38,40,47,48] | 102.18 | [28,29,33,38,47] | 116.2 | [29,44,47,49] | 130.23 | [28,29,44,47] |
Density at 1 bar, 20 °C (kg/m3) | 794 810 | [34] [37,50,51] | 814.8 815 | [37,40,48] [41,52] | 821.8 | [28,29,38,47,53] | 818 824 | [29,44,47,49] [42] | 827 820 | [28,29,38] [54] |
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm/s2) | 2.28 3.64 | [44] [34] | 2.89 | [28,37,40,41] [48] | 4.64 3.32 | [28] [53] | 5.75 6.9 | [44,49] [42] | 7.59 10.2 | [44] [54] |
Cetane number | <15 17–25 | [28] [51] | 18.2–20 20 | [38,40] [28] | 23 42 | [28,29,38,47,53] [33] | 39 23 | [42,55] [38] | 37 39.1 | [28,54] [44] |
Autoignition temperature (°C) | 415 343 | [28] [51,56] | 300 | [29,37,40,44,47] | 285 | [28,29,38,47,53] | 275 270 | [29,44,47] [38] | 270 253 | [28,29,44,47] [54] |
Stoichiometric A/F ratio | 14.2 11.13 | [44] [45] | 11.76 | [28] | 12.15 | [28] | 14.41 12.47 | [44] [49] | 14.45 12.7 | [47] [54] |
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | 33.64 33.08 | [28] [45] | 32.16 35.06 | [29,47] [48] | 36.4 39.1 | [28] [29,33,38,47,53] | 39.92 34.65 | [29,44,47] [55] | 37.53 52.94 | [28] [29,38,47] |
Latent heat of evaporation (kJ/kg) | 684 581.4 | [28] [34] | 647.1 305 | [28] [52] | 603 486 | [28,53] [29,33,38,47] | 575 408 | [49] [42] | 315.1 550 | [44] [54] |
Hydrogen content (wt%) | 13.49 13.64 | [28,29,47] [44] | 13.61 | [28,29,40,47] | 13.70 | [28,29,47] | 13.71 13.88 | [29,44,47,49] [42] | 13.8 13.91 | [28] [44] |
Carbon content (wt%) | 64.82 64.8 | [28,29,44,47] [34,51] | 68.13 | [28,29,47] | 70.52 70.53 | [28,29] [47] | 72.16 73.80 | [29,44,47,49] [42] | 73.72 73.73 | [28,29] [47] |
Oxygen content (wt%) | 19.54 21.62 | [44] [50] | 18.15 | [28,29,40,47] [52] | 15.7 | [28,29,33,47] | 14.13 12.32 | [44] [42] | 12.29 12.41 | [28,29,47] [44] |
Fuel | Diesel | Methanol | Ethanol | Propanol | Butanol | Pentanol | Hexanol | Heptanol | Octanol |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molecular Formula | CnH1.8n (C8–C20) | CH3OH | C2H5OH | C3H7OH | C4H9OH | C5H11OH | C6H13OH | C7H15OH | C8H17OH |
Density at 1 bar, 20 °C (kg/m3) | 820–845 (EN) | 792 (ISO) 791–793 (ASTM) | 790–793 (EN) 790 (ASTM) | 803 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM) | 810 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM) | 810 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM) | 825 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM) | 827 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM) | 826 (EN) (ISO) (ASTM)) |
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm/s2) | 2.0–4.5 (EN) 1.9–4.1 (ASTM) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Cetane number | 51 (EN) 40 (ASTM) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Autoignition temperature (°C) | 220–290 (EN) 210–290 (ASTM) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Lower heating value (MJ/kg) | 42.8 (EN) 42.8–43 (ASTM) | 19.7 (EN) (ASTM) | 23.5 (EN) (ASTM) | 27.6 (EN) (ASTM) | 28.9 (EN) (ASTM) | 29.7 (EN) (ASTM) | 29.8 (EN) (ASTM) | 30.5 (EN) (ASTM) | 31.1 (EN) (ASTM) |
Ref. | Engine Type | Fuels | Combustion | Performance | Stability | Emissions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[27] Jamrozik et al. | One-cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR–17, speed of 1500 rpm, full load | diesel/methanol blends (0–40% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, pmax, HRRmax, and PPRmax; decreased: CD | increased: TE; decreased: SFC | increased: COVimep | increased: NOx; reduced: HC, CO, CO2 |
[28] Kumar et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, speed of 1500 rpm, CR–17.5, high load (5.3 bar bmep) | diesel/iso-butanol (DB) blends, diesel/pentanol (DP) blends, diesel/n-octanol (DO) blends (30% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, pmax, HRRmax, and PPRmax; decreased: CD | - | - | for DB and DP, increased: HC; reduced: NOx, CO, and soot; for DO, reduced: NOx, HC, CO, and soot |
[44] Nour et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR –17, speed of 1500 rpm, high load (18 bar IMEP) | diesel/butanol blends, diesel/heptanol blends, diesel/octanol blends, (10, 20% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID; degreased: CD | decreased: SFC; increased: TE | - | reduced: NOx, soot, and CO; increased: HC |
[31] Jamrozik | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR–17, speed of 1500 rpm, full load | diesel/ethanol blends (10, 20, 30, 40%, vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, pmax, HRRmax, and PPRmax; decreased: CD | increased: TE | increased: COVimep | increased: HC, NOx; reduced: CO, CO2 |
[40] Zhao et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR–17.1, speed of 4500 rpm, high load (55 MPa IMEP) | diesel/propanol blends, diesel/pentanol blends (20, 40% vol alcohol) | increased: ID; degreased: CD | increased: SFC; degreased: TE | - | increased: NOx; reduced: soot, CO, and HC |
[49] Nour et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR–17, speed of 1500 rpm, 100% load | diesel/1-heptanol blends (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, CD, HRRmax, PPRmax | decreased: TE; increased: SFC | increased: COVimep | reduced: soot and NOx |
[54] Ahn et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR–21, speed of 1700 rpm, partial load (0.49 MPa bmep) | diesel/n-octanol blends (10, 30, and 50% vol. alcohol) | - | increased: TE, SFC | - | reduced: CO, soot, HC, and NOx |
[32] Rakopoulos et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR–19.8, speed of 2000 rpm, high load (5.37 bar bmep) | diesel/n-butanol blends (8, 16, and 24% vol. alcohol) | - | constant: TE | - | reduced: soot, NOx, CO; increased: HC |
[29] Dogan et al. | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR–17.5, speed of 1500 rpm, 100% load | diesel/1-hexanol blends (5, 10, 20% vol. alcohol) | - | decreased: TE; increased: SFC | - | reduced: CO2 and NOx; increased: HC |
[64] Bhumula and Kumar | One -cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR–18, speed of 1500 rpm, 100% load | diesel/1-heptanol blends (30% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, CD, pmax, HRRmax | decreased: TE; increased: SFC | - | reduced: CO, soot, HC, and NOx; increased: CO2 |
[47] Bhumula end Kumar | One cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR–18, speed od 1500 rpm, high load (4.44 kW) | diesel/1-heptanol blends (10, 20, and 30% vol. alcohol) | - | decreased: TE; increased: SFC | - | reduced: soot and NOx; increased: HC, CO, and CO2 |
[65] Duraisamy et al. | One -cylinder, liquid-cooled, CR–17.5, speed of 1500 rpm, high load (4.44 kW) | diesel/n-hexanol blends (10 and 20% vol. alcohol) | - | increased: TE; | reduced: CO, CO2, NOx; increased: HC | |
[23] Soni and Gupta | One -cylinder, liquid cooled, CR–17.5, speed of 1500 rpm, 100% load | diesel/methanol blends (10, 20, 30%, vol. alcohol) | increased: pmax, HRRmax | increased: SFC; decreased: TE | - | reduced: soot, HC, and CO; increased: NOx |
[66] Guo et al. | One -cylinder, liquid-cooled, speed of 2000 rpm, full load | diesel/methanol blends (10, 20, 30%, vol. alcohol) | - | increased: SFC | - | increased: NOx and HC; reduced: CO |
[24] Muthaiyan and Gomathinayagam | One -cylinder, liquid-cooled, CR—16.5, speed of 1500 rpm; full load | diesel/1-propanol blends (10, 15, 20%, 25% vol. alcohol) | increased: HRRmax, pmax, and ID | degreased: TE | reduced: NOx, CO, and soot | |
[33] Sundar and Saravanan | One -cylinder, liquid-cooled, CR—17.5, speed of 1500 rpm, peak load (5.2 kW) | diesel/hexanol blends (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% vol. alcohol) | increased: pmax, HRRmax | increased: SFC, TE | - | reduced: NOx, soot |
[67] Atmanli and Yilmaz | Four-cylinder, naturally aspirated, air-cooled, CR—19, speed of 1800 rpm, high load (9 kW) | diesel/1-pentanol blends, (5, 10, 20, 30, 35% vol. alcohol) | - | decreased: TE; increased: SFC | - | reduced: NOx; increased: HC and CO |
[25] Turkcan and Çanakçı | Four-cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid cooled, CR—21.47, speed of 1400 rpm, partial load (40 Nm) | diesel/methanol blends, diesel/ethanol blends (5, 10% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, pmax, HRRmax, and PPRmax; decreased: CD | - | - | - |
[68] Yilmaz et al. | Four-cylinder, naturally aspirated, liquid-cooled, CR—19, speed of 1800 rpm 75% max load (9 kW), | diesel/ n-propanol blends, diesel/n-propanol (5, 20, 35% vol. alcohol) | - | - | - | reduced: NOx, CO; increased: HC |
[62] Pinzi et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—18, speed of 2400 rpm, high load (110 Nm) | diesel/ethanol blends, diesel/1-propanol blends (10, 20, 30% vol. alcohol) | - | - | - | reduced: NOx and soot; increased: CO and THC |
[69] Chen et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—18, speed of 2200 rpm, high load (350 Nm) | diesel/iso-propanol and diesel/n-pentanol blends (20% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID; degreased: CD | - | - | increased: NOx |
[63] Cheng et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—17.5, speed of 1500 rpm, medium load (0.86 MPa bmep) | diesel/n-butanol blends (10 and 30% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID | increased: TE, SFC | - | reduced: soot; increased: NOx |
[45] Han et al. | Six-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—15.85, high load (18 bar IMEP) | diesel/n-butanol (DB) blends, diesel/ethanol (DE) blends (80% vol. alcohol) | increased: pmax, HRRmax, PPRmax | decreased: TE | increased: COVimep | for DB, reduced: CO and soot; increased: HC and NOx; for DE, reduced: NOx and soot; increased: HC and CO |
[34] Sahin et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—18.25, speed of 2000 rpm, high load (145 Nm) | diesel/n-butanol blends (2, 4, 6% vol. alcohol) | decreased: HRRmax | decreased: TE; increased: IMEP, SFC | - | reduced: NOx and soot |
[50] Zhou et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—16.5, speed of 1400 rpm, load (0.8 MPa) | diesel/n-butanol blends (10, 20, 30% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, pmax, HRRmax | decreased: TE; increased: IMEP, SFC | - | reduced: CO and soot; increased: HC and NOx |
[56] Pan et al. | Four-cylinder, turbocharged, liquid-cooled, CR—16.5, speed of 1400 rpm, high load (1.2 MPa bmep) | diesel/n-butanol blends (50% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, HRRmax | increased: TE, SFC | - | reduced: soot; increased: HC and NOx |
[26] Yusaf et al. | Four-cylinder, air-cooled, CR—15.5, speed of 2000 rpm, full load | diesel/methanol blends, diesel/ethanol blends (10, 20, 30% vol. alcohol) | - | increased: TE and SFC | - | - |
[70] Labeckas et al. | Four-cylinder, liquid-cooled, CR—16, speed of 2200 rpm speed, full load | diesel/ethanol blends (5, 10, 15% vol. alcohol) | increased: ID, HRRmax | increased: SEC; decreased: TE | - | increased: CO and soot; reduced: NOx |
% vol. | 5 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 35 | 40 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 8 | 17 | 14 | 21 | 36 | 43 | 57 | 79 | 79 | |||||||||
pmax | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 12 | 7 | 9 | 17 | 9 | −20 | −38 | ||||||
HRRmax | 18 | 64 | 21 | 10 | 40 | 17 | 48 | 40 | 28 | 10 | −43 | −75 | ||||||
PPRmax | 8 | 42 | 18 | 29 | 30 | 27 | 1 | −74 | −87 | |||||||||
CD | −3 | −7 | −6 | −17 | −22 | −25 | −34 | −44 | −50 | |||||||||
TE | 5 | 6 | −3 | 12 | −4 | 16 | 15 | 15 | −6 | 12 | 12 | −6 | ||||||
SFC | 67 | 3 | −20 | 8 | −23 | 15 | 56 | −27 | 3 | −20 | 23 | −13 | 39 | 10 | 0 | 60 | ||
COVimep | 0 | 0 | 20 | 60 | 900 | 990 | ||||||||||||
NOx | 88 | 5 | 95 | 10 | 105 | 16 | 2 | 105 | 88 | |||||||||
HC | −25 | −10 | −38 | −20 | −25 | −13 | −27 | 25 | 10 | |||||||||
CO | −18 | −15 | −36 | −31 | −41 | −50 | −38 | −59 | −10 | −64 | −59 | |||||||
CO2 | −8 | −8 | −17 | −8 | 0 | 50 | ||||||||||||
Soot | −5 | −10 | −14 | |||||||||||||||
[23] | Soni and Gupta | |||||||||||||||||
[25] | Turkcan and Çanakçı | |||||||||||||||||
[26] | Yusaf et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[27] | Jamrozik et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[66] | Guo et al. |
% vol. | 5 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 30 | 30 | 40 | 80 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 7 | 5 | 8 | 8 | 15 | 5 | 38 | 15 | 69 | |
pmax | 0 | 4 | 1 | 5 | 11 | 6 | ||||
HRRmax | 18 | 13 | 40 | 45 | 87 | 10 | 67 | 13 | 7 | |
PPRmax | 8 | 12 | 33 | 55 | 32 | −49 | ||||
CD | −2 | −30 | −4 | −33 | −35 | −49 | ||||
TE | −1 | 3 | 6 | −1 | 9 | −3 | −4 | |||
SFC | 2 | 44 | 4 | |||||||
COVimep | 50 | 900 | 22 | |||||||
NOx | −3 | 100 | −4 | −3 | −13 | −50 | ||||
HC | 7 | 1.5 | 15 | 19 | 31 | |||||
CO | 21 | −11 | 12 | −22 | 21 | −33 | 21 | −39 | ||
CO2 | −17 | 3 | −24 | −9 | −2 | |||||
Soot | 12 | −2 | 12 | 15 | −69 | |||||
[25] | Turkcan and Çanakçı | |||||||||
[31] | Jamrozik | |||||||||
[45] | Han et al. | |||||||||
[62] | Pinzi et al. | |||||||||
[70] | Labeckas et al. |
% vol. | 5 | 10 | 10 | 15 | 16 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 10 | 12 | 17 | 12 | 14 | 22 | 43 | ||||||
pmax | 6 | 10 | 9 | 1 | |||||||||
HRRmax | 28 | 42 | 38 | 28 | |||||||||
PPRmax | 63 | 69 | 54 | 13 | |||||||||
CD | −5 | −11 | −50 | ||||||||||
TE | −4 | 15 | −7 | −7 | −4 | −4 | |||||||
SFC | 15 | 18 | |||||||||||
NOx | −42 | −6 | 7.5 | −6 | −35 | 11 | −14 | −8 | 23 | −9 | −22 | −32 | 49 |
HC | 63 | −1 | 108 | 6 | −29 | 15 | −90 | ||||||
CO | −34 | −53 | −2 | −62 | 12 | 11 | −72 | −20 | −44 | 27 | 0 | −20 | |
CO2 | −2 | −3 | 6 | ||||||||||
Soot | −21 | −1 | −51 | −1 | −59 | −25 | −52 | −8 | −94 | ||||
[24] | Muthaiyan and Gomathinayagam | ||||||||||||
[40] | Zhao et al. | ||||||||||||
[62] | Pinzi et al. | ||||||||||||
[68] | Yilmaz et al. | ||||||||||||
[69] | Chen et al. |
% vol. | 2 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 16 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 24 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 35 | 50 | 80 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 6 | 3 | 18 | 13 | 13 | 25 | 10 | 40 | ||||||||||
pmax | 1 | 1 | −1 | 3 | 6 | 8 | 16 | 13 | ||||||||||
HRRmax | −2 | −3 | −6 | 5 | 24 | 43 | 88 | 20 | ||||||||||
CD | −12 | −8 | −9 | |||||||||||||||
TE | 0 | −1 | −3 | 0 | 4 | −1 | 4 | 0 | −2 | 6 | 5 | −2 | 4 | −5 | ||||
SFC | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | −1 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 6 | 0 | 5 | 10 | 9 | |||||
COVimep | 11 | |||||||||||||||||
NOx | −6 | −8 | −41 | −7 | −8 | −2 | 0 | −12 | −8 | 3 | −36 | −16 | 2 | 8 | −8 | −36 | 9 | 67 |
HC | 75 | 13 | −5 | 24 | 20 | 5 | 69 | 104 | 27 | 114 | 67 | 11 | ||||||
CO | −40 | −3 | −3 | 2 | −6 | 18 | −2 | −5 | −8 | 0 | −10 | −83 | 9 | −50 | ||||
Soot | −7 | −8 | −2 | −21 | −30 | −18 | −43 | −27 | −29 | −50 | −44 | −54 | −54 | −81 | −92 | |||
[28] | Kumar et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[32] | Rakopoulos et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[34] | Sahin et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[44] | Nour et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[45] | Han et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[50] | Zhou et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[56] | Pan et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[63] | Cheng et al. | |||||||||||||||||
[68] | Yilmaz et al. |
% vol. | 5 | 5 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 35 | 40 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 9 | 8 | −5 | 17 | ||||||||
pmax | 15 | |||||||||||
HRRmax | 35 | |||||||||||
CD | −14 | −2 | −5 | −17 | ||||||||
TE | −6 | −17 | −1 | −1 | −4 | −2 | −2 | |||||
SFC | 8 | 24 | 5 | 5 | 11 | 11 | 21 | |||||
NOx | −44 | −45 | −38 | −39 | −35 | −31 | 13 | −35 | 4 | −28 | −28 | −52 |
HC | 38 | 41 | −17 | 33 | −90 | |||||||
CO | −31 | −33 | 0 | 33 | 38 | −20 | 17 | −67 | −17 | −14 | −68 | |
Soot | −31 | −43 | −52 | |||||||||
[28] | Kumar et al. | |||||||||||
[40] | Zhao et al. | |||||||||||
[67] | Atmanli and Yilmaz | |||||||||||
[68] | Yilmaz et al. | |||||||||||
[69] | Chen et al. |
% vol. | 5 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pmax | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 8 | |||||
HRRmax | 4 | 8 | 33 | 46 | 58 | |||||
TE | −4 | 8 | −5 | 4 | 7 | 5 | −7 | 5 | 5 | 2 |
SFC | 2 | 0 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 24 | ||
NOx | −3 | −9 | 5 | 2 | −9 | −10 | −38 | −9 | −11 | −14 |
HC | 80 | 103 | 13 | 20 | 25 | |||||
CO | −50 | −50 | ||||||||
CO2 | 7 | 8 | −15 | −15 | −17 | |||||
Soot | −6 | −6 | −12 | −18 | −29 | |||||
[29] | Dogan et al. | |||||||||
[33] | Sundar and Saravanan | |||||||||
[65] | Duraisamy et al. |
% vol. | 10 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 | 30 | 30 | 30 | 40 | 50 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 3 | 5 | 12 | 10 | 15 | 19 | 20 | 20 | |||
CD | −8 | 15 | −4 | 26 | 24 | 14 | 22 | 17 | |||
pmax | 10 | ||||||||||
HRRmax | −3 | −1 | −3 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 8 | 16 | |||
PPRmax | 1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | ||||||
TE | −8 | 0 | 2 | −3 | −7 | −3 | −11 | −7 | −9 | ||
SFC | 14 | 4 | 0 | 26 | 14 | 5 | 37 | 14 | 18 | ||
COVimep | 33 | 27 | 13 | 13 | 13 | ||||||
NOx | −9 | −20 | −6 | −9 | −6 | −14 | −15 | −5 | −7 | −15 | −26 |
HC | 27 | 13 | 27 | 16 | −24 | 24 | |||||
CO | −25 | 93 | −38 | 40 | −38 | 7 | |||||
CO2 | 6 | 9 | 17 | 14 | |||||||
Soot | −27 | −13 | −29 | −35 | −25 | −21 | −25 | −23 | −24 | −43 | −50 |
[44] | Nour et al. | ||||||||||
[47] | Bhumula and Kumar | ||||||||||
[49] | Nour et al. | ||||||||||
[64] | Bhumula and Kumar |
% vol. | 10 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 50 | 50 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ID | 9 | 15 | 3 | |||
pmax | 0 | |||||
HRRmax | −3 | −3 | 6 | |||
CD | −8 | 0 | −2 | |||
TE | 0 | 1 | 3 | |||
SFC | 1 | 4 | 4 | |||
NOx | −11 | −12 | −7 | −19 | −2 | −23 |
HC | 27 | −38 | 27 | −50 | −50 | −60 |
CO | −13 | −48 | −25 | −55 | −56 | −70 |
Soot | −36 | −50 | −32 | −90 | −32 | −98 |
[28] | Kumar et al. | |||||
[44] | Nour et al. | |||||
[54] | Ahn et al. |
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Jamrozik, A.; Tutak, W. Alcohols as Biofuel for a Diesel Engine with Blend Mode—A Review. Energies 2024, 17, 4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174516
Jamrozik A, Tutak W. Alcohols as Biofuel for a Diesel Engine with Blend Mode—A Review. Energies. 2024; 17(17):4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174516
Chicago/Turabian StyleJamrozik, Arkadiusz, and Wojciech Tutak. 2024. "Alcohols as Biofuel for a Diesel Engine with Blend Mode—A Review" Energies 17, no. 17: 4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174516
APA StyleJamrozik, A., & Tutak, W. (2024). Alcohols as Biofuel for a Diesel Engine with Blend Mode—A Review. Energies, 17(17), 4516. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174516