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Article

Non-Industrial Solar Energy Use, Barriers, and Readiness: Case Study of Oman

by
Ashraf Mishrif
* and
Asharul Khan
Humanities Research Centre, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 17, Al-Khoud, Muscat 123, Oman
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(16), 3917; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163917
Submission received: 27 June 2024 / Revised: 31 July 2024 / Accepted: 4 August 2024 / Published: 8 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Management: Economic, Social, and Ecological Aspects)
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Abstract

:
The depletion of fossil fuels, economic concerns over the sharp fluctuations in oil prices, and environmental concerns including global warming have renewed interest in alternative green energy solutions in the form of renewable energy technologies. Solar energy is one of the most promising and environmentally friendly forms of renewable energy for power generation. However, energy transition towards renewables has been slow in developing countries, particularly in the oil-rich Arab Gulf countries. To assess the perspective of Omani consumers in terms of solar energy use, barriers, and readiness to use solar energy for sustainable development, this study aims to determine the proportion of the Omani population who use solar energy, the barriers to solar energy consumption in Oman, people’s perceptions towards solar energy barriers, policies aimed at promoting solar energy programs, and the likelihood and willingness to use solar energy in the future. This analysis is based on quantitative data collected through a questionnaire survey distributed in Oman between 20 June 2023 to 12 August 2023. We used 113 samples for analysis using Principal Component Analysis and Krushkal–Wallis H-tests. Our results revealed that 95% of the residents and commercial units surveyed are willing to use solar PV in the future. The main barriers identified include high installation costs, high maintenance costs, and lack of awareness. The potential for growth in solar energy consumption and use depends on the capacity of the government to provide substantial incentives, financial support, improved quality, implement public-private partnership programs, as well as introduce a clear solar energy policy. While evaluating consumers’ awareness and intentions to use solar energy in the future, this study offers practical implications for policymakers to forecast the potential growth, identify effective policy instruments for promoting renewable energy, and determine the readiness of the country for transition to cleaner energy consumption.

1. Introduction

The urgency of a rapid transition towards clean energy is slowly emerging as global electricity demand grows. At the COP28 climate change summit in Dubai, more than 130 governments and the European Union (EU) pledged to collaborate to treble the world’s installed renewable energy capacity to at least 11,000 gigawatts (GW) by 2030. Global annual renewable capacity additions climbed by about 50% in 2023, reaching approximately 510 GW. The renewable capacity growth in Europe, the United States (US), and Brazil reached all-time highs, with China’s acceleration being unprecedented [1]. Solar photovoltaic (PV) is predicted to increase by more than quadruple in the US, the EU, India, and Brazil by 2028 compared to the previous five years. The key drivers of this acceleration are favourable regulatory conditions and the growing economic attractiveness of solar PV.
The solar PV system Is one of the clean energy sources. It can be placed on the commercial and Institutional buildings. The solar power system or photovoltaic system uses sunlight to generate electricity. There are different components such as solar inverters, solar panels, and solar thermal systems. The solar panel absorb and convert sunlight into power. The rooftop solar energy uses solar-control systems to generate solar electricity and solar heat at the same time. The solar PV energy output varies according to available solar radiation and panel efficiency. The rooftop solar energy reduces energy consumption, entails energy security, provides clean and green energy, and finally reduces expenses on the energy bills. In Poland, Pater [2] demonstrated, how solar photovoltaic and heat pumps can help in heating water in residential buildings. According to Duman and Güler [3] rooftop PV systems are potentially appealing since it does not need additional infrastructure and can be installed at the desired location. The main benefits include lower electricity bills, net metering, or future policy instruments that allow them to sell excess electricity to the grid at retail price [3,4].
Rooftop solar PV is predicted to grow faster than large-scale plants in the EU and Brazil as residential and commercial consumers strive to decrease their electricity bills in the face of rising prices. In the EU, renewables’ penetration is predicted to exceed 50% in at least seven member states by 2028. Many countries have already adopted solar energy initiatives due to economic and environmental advantages. However, the acceptance and use of solar energy products have faced several barriers such as technology access, costs, and knowledge gaps. Early indications also reveal that public readiness and acceptance factors directly influence the development and implementation of solar energy technologies and achieving the clean energy policy targets [5,6].
While the costs of solar projects are gradually decreasing, the relatively high initial cost remains a major barrier to their widespread acceptance, particularly in developing nations [7]. In one study, Kuzior et al. [8] examined different types of energy taxes and their effectiveness depending on the energy production. For instance, countries with diverse energy systems should have complex energy taxes as compared to the ones with fossil fuel-based energy systems and renewable energy systems.
Solar energy projects need considerable financial support in developing economies [9,10]. Several studies have highlighted that the readiness and acceptance of solar energy depends on gender and age in South Asia [11], age in Uzbekistan [12], cost in Australia [13], and trusts and cost among the South Californian residents. Meanwhile, other studies assessed the effect of costs, risks, and benefits of solar energy on the positive or negative feelings about solar energy technology [14]. The impact of technical barriers [15], familiarity and ignorance [16], location [17], infrastructure and applications [18] on solar energy are also examined in the literature.
The solar industry should also focus on minimizing solar power losses by improving the quality [19]. Another aspect is to identify the most efficient location for solar panels so have the maximum amount of radiation [20,21]. Energy-efficient construction and renewable energy sources are two approaches that can help us minimize our reliance on fossil fuels and thereby safeguard the environment [22].
In the context of the Sultanate of Oman, the country has developed several initiatives to support the process of designing and implementing renewable energy solutions such as solar energy to address environmental problems and global warming. The CO2 emission from energy (tCO2/capita) and fossil fuel exports (kg/per capita) rates are very high in Oman [23]. The potential of Oman to be a major producer of solar energy is very high due to its geography and climate condition, with an average summer temperature of 40 °C in Muscat and coastal areas and a maximum temperature of 50.8 °C (123.4 °F) during summer in the internal regions. With 320 sunny days per year and high-intensity sunlight peaking at some 6000 watt-hours/m2, Oman has the potential to achieve its National Energy Strategy 2040, which aims to produce 10% of electricity from renewable sources by 2025 and 30% by 2040 [24,25].
Currently, Oman harnesses only a fraction of solar energy despite its huge potential. Although Oman has the capacity, the prominence of solar energy is lower when compared to other GCC countries, ranking the lowest in renewable energy technologies for power generation. Oman has a huge potential for solar energy, but the growth of this industry depends on several factors such as readiness-to-pay/use, knowledge, attitudes, infrastructure, expertise, and overall government support. Overall, the incentive schemes and other adoption support programs designed by different nations are still very limited [26]. Other studies identified an awareness gap in the literature and stressed the need to conduct further investigation on consumers and region-specific barriers to solar PV [27,28]. In Oman, there is a major lacuna in understanding the subtle impact of government policy, incentives, and barriers to rooftop solar PV acceptance.
To improve solar energy consumption in Oman, this study attempts to analyze the status and determine the key factors influencing the development of this industry. It underlines the gap between understanding consumers’ perceptions and current solar energy implementation plans. It also attempts to answer the following questions: what is the proportion of the Omani population who use solar energy? What are the barriers to solar energy consumption and use in Oman? How do people’s perceptions towards solar energy barriers differ, provided they have used it at some point in life? What are the key factors influencing the promotion of solar energy programs in Oman? How likely is the Omani population willing to use solar energy in the future? In doing so, we use a quantitative research method for data collection and analysis and determining awareness, barriers, and solar energy acceptance and consumption among consumers in Oman, excluding the use of solar energy for industrial purposes.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Solar Energy in Oman

Solar energy is one of the different kinds of renewable energies. The others are ocean, geothermal, bioenergy, hydropower, and wind. Solar PV systems use photovoltaic cells to capture sunlight and convert it into direct current electricity. Most electrical gadgets and power systems require AC; thus, the DC current is often transformed using an inverter. Figure 1 shows the renewable capacity growth 2005–2028 (CSP: concentrated solar power. ACC: average cost of capital.).
In Oman, the first major solar energy project was established at Ibri, Al Dhahirah, and financed by Saudi and Kuwaiti firms with a total of $275 million to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, control global warming, and generate 1598 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of electricity. Under the National Renewable Energy Initiative (SAHIM) launched in 2017, Oman plans the installation of solar panels in residential units to generate power using the sun’s rays in Muscat, Mazoon, Majan, and Dhofar [29]. This initiative aims to minimize reliance on traditional energy sources while creating excess energy for the community. In 2021, 45% of Oman’s total electricity was consumed by residential customers, and 34% by commercial and public services [30]. In the case of Oman, scientific evidence shows that Marmul, Fahud, Sohar, and Qairoon Hairiti regions receive maximum amounts of solar radiation with 320 sunny days per year and sometimes high-intensity sunlight can peak at 6000 watt-hours/m2. The potential for optimum utilization of solar energy is significantly high, as Oman’s National Energy Strategy 2040 aims to produce 10% of electricity from renewable sources by 2025 and 30% by 2040. Figure 2 shows the photovoltaic power potential in Oman. The photovoltaic power potential data was obtained from Global Solar Atlas [31].

2.2. Barriers and Adoption Factors Affecting Rooftop Solar PV

Solar PV adoption is heavily influenced by a variety of economic and non-economic factors [32]. Karakaya and Sriwannawit [33] conducted a systematic review of the barriers hindering the diffusion of PV systems. Bollinger and Gillingham [34] studied peer influences on solar PV diffusion in California. These studies underlined several factors that affect solar PV adoption, including cost, expertise, awareness, incentives, and policies.

2.2.1. Installation and Maintenance Costs

The expense and costs constrain solar PV adoption [35,36]. The costs remain a challenge among residents in developed and developing countries alike. Surprisingly, despite the technological advancements in renewable energy, most developed countries still suffer from the high costs of solar PV. This is apparent in the US, where empirical studies revealed that high-income households are more likely to adopt solar PV than low- and moderate-income households [37]. Schelly [38] also found that the cost and economic benefits influence the decision of many Wisconsin homeowners to adopt solar PV. Germany, one of the most advanced countries in Solar energy technologies, exhibited a similar pattern to the US. Dharshing [39] conducted empirical research on aggregate panel data for 807,969 home solar systems in 402 German counties from 2000 to 2013. He observed the influence of socioeconomic conditions on solar PV adoption. According to Schaffer and Brun [40], affluent homeowners are more interested in solar because they can afford it. Palm [41] also found the same effect of costs as a major challenge among most residents in Sweden during the periods 2008–2009 and 2014–2016. The situation is even worse in developing countries. For instance, solar PV adoption is heavily influenced by high costs in Ethiopia [32].
Solar PV continues to have higher start-up costs than other energy sources, as well as higher installation prices due to greater labour expenses [42]. For many consumers, the high costs of solar PV systems currently restrict the market [43]. Most of these financial burdens are associated with Solar PV diffusion [44,45], while solar PV diffusion is the function of costs [46]. One could also argue that macroeconomic conditions can influence solar PV adoption, as inflation rates often drive up equipment costs for solar PV while rising interest rates increase financing costs.

2.2.2. Technical Expertise and Support

As a relatively emerging industry, solar energy technologies are scarce and lack technical knowledge and expertise in many parts of the world. The availability of technical support and maintenance services for solar panels is hard to find in most developing countries. Akrofi et al. [47] conducted a study in Ghana on the stakeholders’ (consumers, real estate developers, solar companies, and government bodies) perceptions towards residential rooftop solar PV design. They found that the country lacks expertise and knowledge in terms of the kind and shape of a building’s roof, roofing material, the height of adjoining structures etc. The availability of solar PV expertise and skills is confined to the big players and companies only, but hard to find in vendors and small companies. There are also concerns about the quality of services to customers, which could be compromised, as well as possible delays in the project’s completion [48]. This industry also lacks globally accepted standards for quality tests, adding further challenges to the suppliers and cell manufacturers [49].
In addition, solar PV adoption is influenced by after-sales maintenance services [32]. Segreto et al. [50] studied 25 projects on renewable energy acceptance in Europe and concluded that acceptance depends on quality and trust. There is a consensus among scholars that solar PV suffers from insufficient expertise and a knowledgeable and trained workforce [41,51]. As service quality features of solar PV are still under investigation [52], the need for a support system is essential for the widespread use of solar energy [42]. It is important to develop the technical aspects of solar energy development and deployment [45] and assign support services to large corporate entities [53].

2.2.3. Solar PV Awareness and Benefits

Ansari et al. [54] examined the factors influencing the adoption of solar energy in Malaysia. Their analysis of 240 questionnaires from consumers indicates that solar energy awareness influences the acceptance and opposition to solar energy. Dutta and Das [55] argued that raising awareness through programs aimed at promoting the use of solar rooftop systems has had a significant positive impact on solar PV adoption. This is reaffirmed by other studies, which stressed that stakeholders’ awareness is vital to the success of clean energy transition initiatives and acceptance of renewable energy [56,57]. The solar program has a high success rate if stakeholders are highly aware of the benefits of renewable energy [58,59]. Public awareness of the benefits and environmental concerns of renewable energy is expected to increase solar energy use among residents [60]; this was confirmed by Islam [61], who found a strong effect of energy awareness on the residents of Ontario, a Canadian province, to adopt solar PV.
The perceived utility of renewable energy and the perceived benefit are the primary drivers of renewable energy deployment [36]. Even in countries such as Sweden, advanced knowledge and awareness campaigns of solar PV are required [62]. Sütterlin and Siegrist [63] also argue that people make their decisions on solar PV depending on their attitude towards advanced technologies. Other scholars stress the role of awareness and information availability in solar PV diffusion [34,64,65].

2.2.4. Incentives and Financial Support

The solar energy literature stresses the importance of providing economic and financial incentives that could help in overcoming economic and financial barriers [66]. When reviewing the factors concerning the adoption of solar products such as home systems, lanterns, hot water heaters, and cooking products in low- and middle-income countries, Girardeau et al. [67] analyzed 59 studies in 29 countries and found that cost, subsidy, and technical and financial support by the government are the main driving factors to solar PV adoption. Bekti et al. [4] also investigated the factors influencing rooftop solar PV adoption in Indonesia and found that the majority of the 208 survey respondents agreed to install rooftop PV systems if the government provided them with financial support and incentives. While Palm [41] underscored financial incentives as significant motivators among Swedish residents, other scholars reaffirmed this type of incentive in promoting solar PV adoption [68,69].
Moreover, Zander et al. [70] examined the impact of incentive policies on rooftop solar panels adoption in Australia and found that one-third of respondents were concerned about bearing the costs, hence changing their opinions on the incentives. Participants preferred to have a guarantee to sell the extra produced electricity for 5 to 10 years. This shows that production-based incentives are less attractive than financial ones to consumers [71].

2.2.5. Public-Private Partnership and Clear Solar Energy Policy

The literature on renewable energy reveals a policy shortfall when it comes to solar energy adoption. Despite the assistance and incentives provided by governments, renewables fail to fulfil generation targets for a variety of reasons including worldwide collaboration [7]. The government has the role not only of designing and regulating energy policies, but it should also focus on the implementation and adoption of solar PV [72,73]. The adoption of solar energy is a critical part of policy implementation. Luthra et al. [74] found the importance of state-level initiatives such as policies and regulations in the adoption of solar power in India. The success of policy implementation and adoption depends on the level of partnership between the government and key stakeholders, including the private sector, companies operating in solar technology, consumers, and the public. Consumer acceptability and involvement with new energy technologies such as solar PV remain vital for successful policies targeting renewable energy adoption [75,76,77].
There are several policy measures to promote solar energy adoption such as feed-in tariffs, low-interest loans, and investment subsidies [78,79,80,81]. Graziano and Gillingham [82] observed that solar programs play a major role in influencing solar PV system uptake in Connecticut, USA. Solangi et al. [83] compared and contrasted various policies implemented by various countries in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Malaysia. Their findings complement those by Jacobsson and Lauber [84], who stressed that political determination and policy instruments resulted in the rapid adoption of solar energy systems in Germany.

3. Research Methodology

This study uses quantitative methods to investigate the systematic interaction between theory and data in terms of readiness and key barriers to solar energy consumption and development in the context of Oman. Both simple and advanced statistical techniques were used including PCA and Kruskal–Wallis H-tests.

3.1. Survey Design

An online survey questionnaire was designed based on the literature review. The survey utilizes the identified factors from the literature such as awareness, readiness, costs, etc. The survey is based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = unsure, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). The survey questions were pilot-tested before the actual distribution to ensure the reliability of the result. The survey had two categories of questions. 1—Demographic information. The demographic information mainly covered the background and experience of the responders. For instance, gender, age, solar energy use at home, solar energy program awareness, and awareness of SAHIM I and II projects. 2—Specific questions to answer the research objectives and research questions. These questions had several independent variables.
The survey was designed keeping in mind the following research questions: What is the proportion of the Omani population who use solar energy? What are the barriers to solar energy consumption and use in Oman? How do people’s perceptions towards solar energy barriers differ, provided they have used it at some point in life? What are the key factors influencing the promotion of solar energy programs in Oman? How likely is the Omani population willing to use solar energy in the future?

3.2. Data Collection and Validation

The designed survey was verified by the research team in terms of fulfilling the research objectives, structure, language, and ethical norms. It was pilot-tested before the final distribution. Some corrections were made during pilot testing. The survey targets Oman-based residents using random sampling, a method that ensures each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen, avoiding potential bias and ensuring an equal distribution of samples. In a random sampling technique, each member of a population gets an equal and independent chance of being chosen for a sample [85,86,87]. As a result, there is no association between the observations in each group or between the groups themselves, implying that each individual or object in the population is selected completely at random, with no bias in the process. This means that each individual or object in the population is selected entirely at random, with no bias in the selection process.
A list of 130 companies was prepared for sending the survey. The companies were contacted before the survey distribution. The survey was distributed through online mode in different parts of Oman from 20 June 2023 to 12 August 2023. Around 120 samples were collected, however, after cleaning 113 samples were used for analysis.
Although the sample size is small and this is one of the limitations of the study, however, the 113 sample is enough to conclude the study findings since the random sampling technique is used. The random sampling technique reduces the biasedness in the data. The random sampling aided in limiting the bias and allowed to securely generalize the findings of the sample. Moreover, the descriptive outcomes are supported by the Kruskkall-Wallis test.

3.3. Analysis Technique: Principal Component Analysis (PCA), and Kruskal–Wallis Test

PCA is a statistical method that simplifies the interpretation and visualization of big data tables by dividing the information content into smaller, more manageable indices. PCA extract the most important information from the data and describes it as a set of summary indices known as principal components [88]. The objective is to extract relevant information data and express it as a set of new orthogonal variables known as principal components and display the pattern of similarity between the observations and variables as points on maps. A PCA plot depicts the similarities between groups of samples in a dataset. Each point on a PCA plot reflects the relationship between an initial variable and the first and second main components.
The Kruskal–Wallis test, which was developed by Kruskal and Wallis [89] in 1952, is a statistical test that compares two or more groups of a continuous or discrete variable. The Kruskal–Wallis H test, also known as one-way ANOVA on ranks, is a non-parametric method used to determine statistically significant differences between independent and dependent variables [89]. Non-parametric means that no assumptions are made about the data’s properties, such as mean and variance. This indicates that at least one sample is stochastically dominating over the other. The Kruskal–Wallis test is applied in the following situations [90,91,92]: 1—data is non-normal or has a skewed distribution (data in each category should be evenly distributed), 2—the presence of two or more independent groups of variables, 3—data should follow similar distribution across groups, and 4—sampling should be random.

3.4. Preliminary Analysis

The percentage of male respondents is higher than females, with 56.5% being male and 43.5% female. The largest number of respondents lies in the age group of 20 to 25, which accounts for 24.1% of the whole sample, followed by 32 to 37, accounting for 18.5%. The survey covered most governorates in Oman. Most of participants were from Muscat (49.6%), Al Dakhiliyah (22.1%), Al Batinah North (10.6%), Al Batinah South (6.2%), Al Dhahirah (3.5%), Al Sharqiyah North (2.7%), Al Sharqiyah South (2.7%), Al Buraymi (0.9%), Al Wusta (0.9%), and Dhofar (0.9%).
When participants were asked about their awareness of solar energy programs, 58% of them replied Yes, while 42% replied No. Another question was asked on whether they knew about the SAHIM I and II projects; most of them replied “No” (69.4%), while only 30.6% knew about it. The participants were asked about the barriers they face in solar energy such as costs and technical support, and if they were interested in using solar energy in the future. A total of 95% confirmed that they are willing to install solar energy panels in their home in the future. Table 1 shows the descriptive analysis.

4. Data Analysis

4.1. Proportion of Omani Population Using Solar Energy

The participants were asked if they have used solar energy at some point in time currently or in the past. For instance, less than 6 months, 6–12 months, 1–2 years, 2–3 years, more than 3 years, and never used. The analysis found that 68% of the Omani population never used solar energy, while only 8% used it less than 6 months. The percentage of the population using more than 3 years is only 7%, using 2–3 years is 6%, and using last 1–2 years is 8%. Figure 3 shows the percentage of Omanis using solar energy.
The analysis also explains the willingness of those who had used or never used solar energy to use it in the future. It reveals that all categories are willing to use solar energy in the future, with those who never used it recording the highest percentage of 68.9%, followed by 8.5% by those who used it for less than 6 months and 1–2 years. Only 6.6% of those who used solar energy for 6–12 months, 1.9% of used it for 2–3 years, and 5.7% of those who used it for more than 3 years are willing to use it in the future. Meanwhile, the highest percentage of those refusing to use solar energy was among the never used it at 57.1%, followed by more than 3 years and 2–3 years at 28.6% and 14.3%, respectively. In terms of geographical distribution of solar energy use, Muscat ranted the highest with 50% of total participants, followed by Al Dhakiliya with 22%, Al Batinah North with 11%, Al Batinah South with 6%, Al Dhahirah with 4%, Al Sharqiyah North with 3%, and Al Sharqiyah South with 3%, while Al-Wusta and Dhofar ranked the least attractive regions to solar energy, as shown in Figure 4.

4.2. Barriers to Solar Energy Consumption and Use in Oman

Data analysis determined four main barriers to solar energy use and consumption. These barriers are the high installation cost, high maintenance cost, lack of technical support, and lack of awareness. The mean and standard deviations are high installation costs (M = 3.15, SD = 1.36), high maintenance costs (M = 3.12, SD = 1.17), a lack of technical support (M = 2.98, SD = 1.15), and a lack of awareness (M = 3.25, SD = 1.27). A total of 49% of respondents agreed on lack of awareness, followed by 49% on high installation costs, 39% on the high maintenance costs, and 35% on a lack of technical support. The highest value corresponds to a lack of awareness, followed by the installation costs. Figure 5 shows the barriers to solar energy consumption in Oman.
Moreover, to depict the similarities between the barriers (i.e., between the high installation cost, high maintenance cost, lack of technical support, and lack of awareness) a PCA plot was drawn. The PCA extract relevant information from the data asset presents it as a set of new orthogonal variables known as principal components, and displays the pattern of similarity between the observations and variables as points on maps.
The vector/arrow/variable line projections on the PC1 and PC2 axes represent the direction and the strength of the association among the variable-component pairs. The positions of variables from their origin define their correlation: a positive correlation (r close to 1) is 90 degrees apart, meaning they are not correlated (r close to 0); 180 degrees apart (opposed quadrants) means that they are negatively correlated (r close to −1). Figure 6 shows the PCA plot for the barriers to solar energy. PC1 (Dim1) explains about 62.2% and PC2 (Dim2) explains about 23.4% of the variability. PC1 is highly positively correlated with installation and maintenance costs. The horizontal axis is linked with installation and maintenance costs, and the vertical axis with awareness and lack of technical support. Thus, the PCA analysis has revealed that installation and maintenance costs can be grouped under the cost barriers while awareness and lack of technical support fall under the other barriers category.

4.3. People’s Perceptions and Experience of Solar Energy Barriers

A Kruskal–Wallis H-test is conducted to investigate if solar energy use at home is influenced by the barriers. The test showed that there was no statistically significant difference in solar energy use at home between high installation cost, high maintenance cost, lack of technical support, and lack of awareness. For instance, high installation cost; χ2(5) = 3.316, p = 0.651, high maintenance cost: χ2(5) = 3.634, p = 0.603, lack of technical support: χ2(5) = 0.8, p = 0.977, lack of awareness: χ2(1) = 5.629, p = 0.344. However, Kruskal-Wallis H-test tests showed that there were statistically significant differences in solar energy use and between lack of technical support and lack of awareness. For instance, lack of technical support: χ2(1) = 5.772, p = 0.016, lack of awareness: χ2(1) = 8.8869, p = 0.003. Moreover, the Kruskal–Wallis H-test showed that there was a statistically significant difference in solar energy awareness over lack of awareness. For instance, lack of awareness: χ2(1) = 5.053, p = 0.025. Kruskal–Wallis H-test tests showed that there was no statistically significant difference in solar energy use in the future between high installation cost, high maintenance cost, lack of technical support, and lack of awareness. For instance, high installation cost; χ2(1) = 0.17255, p = 0.678, high maintenance cost: χ2(1) = 0.00645, p = 0.936, lack of technical support: χ2(1) = 0.02185, p = 0.882, lack of awareness: χ2(1) = 0.36317, p = 0.547. Table 2 and Table 3 show the Kruskal-Wallis H-test for solar energy use under various constraints.

4.4. Promotion of Solar Energy Programs in Oman

This study further investigates the key factors to consider while promoting solar energy programs in Oman. The identified key factors include solar energy, including financial support, improved quality, public-private partnership, clear solar energy policy, and government incentives. The mean and standard deviations are financial support (M = 3.58, SD = 1.39), improved quality (M = 3.41, SD = 1.33), public-private partnership (M = 3.55, SD = 1.25), clear solar energy policy (M = 3.68, SD = 1.26), and government incentives (M = 3.73, SD = 1.39). There are differences in the opinion of different factors. The highest value corresponds to government incentives (67%) and financial support (67%). The others are clean energy policy (63%), public-private partnership (58%), and improved quality (56%). The last is quality control. Figure 7 shows the promotional factors for the solar energy program in Oman.
Figure 8 illustrates the PCA plot for the factors promoting solar energy in Oman. PC1 (Dim1) explains about 80.3% and PC2 (Dim2) explains about 7.9% of the variability. PC1 is highly positively correlated with financial support, clear policies, and government support. The horizontal axis is linked with financial support, clear policies, and government support, and the vertical axis with public-private partn
Moreover, no statistically significant difference was observed in the case of perceptions towards the promotion of solar programs and the existing use of solar programs. Table 4 and Table 5 show the Kruskal–Wallis H-test for solar energy use, future, and perceptions towards various promotion programs.

4.5. Willingness of Omanis to Use Solar Energy in the Future

Our data analysis shows that 95% of the population is willing to use solar energy in the future, and only 5% say they are not likely to use it in the future. Data also reveals a variation in the geographical distribution of residents who are likely to use solar energy in the future. As per distribution of residents, 47% of them reside in Muscat, 20% in Al Dakhiliyah, 11% in Al Batinah North, 6% in Al Batinah South, 3% in Al Dhahirah, 3% in Al Sharqiyah North, 2% in Al Sharqiyah South, 1% in Al Buraymi, 1% in Al Wusta, and 1% in Dhofar. The percentages of residents that are not likely to use solar energy in the future were as follows: Al Dakhiliyah (2%), Al Dhahirah (1%), Al Sharqiyah South (1%), and Muscat (3%). The participants in the age group of 20–25 (25%) are more likely to use solar energy in the future than the older generations. Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the percentage of solar energy use in the future by residency and age.
In terms of awareness of solar energy and willingness to use it in the future, 59% were aware of the solar energy program and willing to use it, while 42% were not aware but willing to use it in the future. Only 29% were not aware and not willing to use it in the future. Figure 11 shows the percentage of participants who are not willing to use solar energy in the future while being unaware of solar energy program or SAHIM project accounted for 28.6% and 42.9%, respectively, indicating that the government did not make sufficient efforts to promote solar energy programs, especially SAHIM projects. The results are worse in the second group of participants, who are likely to use solar energy in the future but not aware of solar energy programs or SAHIM projects recorded 41.5% and 69.8%, respectively. However, when participants are aware of the solar energy program (71.4%) and the SAHIM project (57.1%) but are unlikely to use them in the future underline the impact of other factors such as the costs of installation and maintenance on their decisions. Our analysis also finds that a large number of participants are unlikely to use solar energy in the future and unaware of solar energy programs (28.6%) and SAHIM projects (42.9%), signifying a failure in promoting solar energy programs.

5. Discussion

Globally, rooftop solar power has been accepted as a low-cost electricity source. It reduces the pressure on the government to produce or purchase extra electricity, especially in countries that rely heavily on energy imports. Our analysis corresponds to recent studies that argue that both the advancement and cost reduction of solar technology have given prominence to rooftop solar PV systems to offer huge potential and opportunities to exploit solar energy [3,93]. The growing interest in rooftop solar power has increased due to its enormous benefits such as energy bill savings, government financial support, and technology-related cost reductions. For instance, the University of Johannesburg solar PV system helped to reduce 25% in energy usage costs, 27% in maximum demand costs, and a reduction in CO2 emissions [94]. There are also significant economic gains from solar PV in large-scale solar farm development in Australia, as well as the benefits from reducing carbon emissions [95].
In the context of Oman, our analysis reveals that the country has one of the highest solar energy densities in the world, making it an excellent contender for solar energy projects. This position is reaffirmed by the International Renewable Energy Agency [96] in the Sultanate of Oman Renewables Readiness Assessment (2021), which highlighted that Marmul, Fahud, Sohar and Qaroon Hariti regions have the highest insolation of solar energy and that most of the places in the country have a huge amount of average duration of daily sunshine [29]. However, several financial, technical, social, and economic barriers to solar energy projects including the SAHIM initiatives identified above. Our findings identified some of these barriers, namely high installation and maintenance costs and a lack of technical support and incentives. The underperformance of SAHIM projects could be largely attributed to inadequate awareness campaigns of the schemes, lack of stakeholders’ engagement, absence of consumers’ motivation and participation, and poor policy implementation, all of which negatively impacted the solar PV players, and management and operation of the projects. Our findings complement those of Oudes et al. [97] and Merleau-Ponty [98], who concluded that the successful realization of solar PV depends on understanding people’s characteristics and scientific assessment of the readiness for solar energy.
The Kruskal–Wallis H-test tests showed that there were statistically significant differences in solar energy use over barriers such as lack of technical support and lack of awareness with the moderate effect size ε2 = 0.05 and 0.08 respectively. Similarly, there was a statistically significant difference in solar energy awareness over lack of awareness with moderate effect size ε2 = 0.05. The Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner showed a lack of technical support for solar energy use N0 and Yes (W = −3.40, p = 0.002), lack of awareness for solar energy use N0 and Yes (W = −4.22, p = 0.003), Moreover, there were statistically significant in SAHIM project awareness over improved quality with weak effect size ε2 = 0.03. The Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner showed improved quality for SAHIM awareness N0 and Yes (W = −2.73, p = 0.005).
Our results reveal inconsistency in promoting solar energy that discouraged consumers from engaging in solar energy, as well as greater disparities among regions when initiating and implementing solar PV schemes. This is confirmed statistically, as most of the residents have not used solar PV, with 68% of the population never using solar energy, and only 8% used it for less than 6 months. Results also reveal that Muscat and Al Dhakiliya ranked the highest regions in terms of solar energy use, while Al-Wusta and Dhofar ranked the lowest regions in the rooftop solar energy consumers. Thus, this study highlights the particular demands and limitations of each region, ensuring that barriers and promotional factors are fine-tuned to increase the total rooftop PV system installation viability.
Our determination of lack of awareness and installation costs as key challenges to solar energy in Oman is supported in the literature by the findings of Hargreaves et al. [99] and Walker et al. [58] who stressed that stakeholders’ awareness towards clean energy technologies is vital to energy transition and consumers acceptance. Awareness campaigns through social media, events, workshops, and training could be effective in spreading the message. Among the channels suggested by participants are “use social media to spread the importance of using solar energy to increase people’s awareness towards this issue”, “educating people about its benefits more”, “we need more awareness, technology transfer and adoption, specialized institutes, corporation with the public sector, fiscal and financial incentives”, and “encouraging community members to use solar energy”.
Although solar energy adoption is critical for clean energy transition, diversification, and environmental conservation, our analysis revealed inconsistencies in policy implementation. For example, under the SAHIM I that started in 2017, house owners and businesses installed solar panels at their expense, allowing them to benefit financially by exporting an excess of solar energy after self-consumption. However, under the SAHIM II scheme that started in 2021, certified private solar PV agencies installed all required devices and beard the costs. This variation in policies and conflicting interests for political reasons hampered progress in solar energy adoption [100].
We also found that successful solar energy adoption depends largely on government incentives and financial support in Oman. This is reflected in the comments by one of the participants, who suggested “allocating a suitable amount of money from the national income to support projects of solar energy”. These insights complement the findings by Zander et al. [70], who found that income, education, understanding of Australia’s renewable energy policies and environmental concerns all positively influenced readiness to install a photovoltaic system. O’Shaughnessy [101] stressed the importance of incentive schemes for low-income households to promote solar PV adoption in the USA.
The debate on the barriers hampering the development of the solar energy industry in Oman is broad and varies between those who assert the development of solar PV expertise to fill the technical gap [47,102], those who call for regulation to force residents to install solar panels on their buildings, and those who promote partnership between the government, private sector, and manufacturing industries to reduce costs and achieve the economic sustainability of rooftop PV systems [59,103,104,105]. Oman could benefit from the experience of other countries by introducing tax deductions that proved to be the most effective approach for encouraging consumers’ acceptance of solar PV in the residential sector [80]. Awareness and promotional campaigns must target the younger and more educated people, who can acknowledge the benefits of installing solar PV regardless of incentives. Awareness of the subsidy policy is critical in deciding whether to adopt it, whereas knowledge of solar water heater technology influences consumption levels. Finally, our results are consistent with the findings of other researchers including Wang et al. [106], who studied local perceptions and attitudes towards understanding technology and its benefits, awareness of policies and initiatives on solar water heaters in Jiangxi Province in South China. The findings indicate that geographical considerations, home traits, and resident characteristics play distinct roles in the adoption of solar energy.

6. Conclusions

This study conducts a full investigation of how financial incentives and legislative changes influence the uptake of rooftop PV. It emphasizes the significance of delving deeper into the complex dynamics of policy interventions and economic incentives to drive rooftop solar PV efforts to higher sustainability and widespread adoption in Oman. It also underlines the environmental and sustainable development challenges that press for clean energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable sources of clean energy such as solar energy. Empirical studies highlight the serious environmental and health risks associated with pollution, while others stress the economic and financial costs associated with the constant fluctuation of oil prices on sustainable economic development.
While assessing the perspective of Omani consumers in terms of solar energy project awareness, this study underlined some of the major barriers to solar energy, the readiness to use solar energy, and the readiness of the solar energy industry for expansion and growth. 49% of respondents agreed on lack of awareness, followed by 49% high installation cost, 39% high maintenance cost, and 35% lack of technical support as major barriers to solar energy adoption. However, most surveyed residents showed a willingness to participate in such schemes. It also highlighted the barriers of installation and maintenance costs and technical support that continue to hamper this industry. In terms of awareness of solar energy and desire to use it in the future, 59% were aware of the solar energy program and willing to use it, while 42% were unaware but eager to use it later. Only 29% were unaware and unwilling to use it in the future.
The study acknowledges the limited and small samples, hence suggesting further examinations of large sample sizes and appropriate modelling techniques such as Structural Equations and Neural networks on solar energy readiness, acceptance, enablers, and barriers.
This study also has theoretical and practical implications. Oman has huge potential for lithium exploitation and production which is the main source of solar, however, this potential cannot be attained until serious challenges in the country’s regulations, awareness, financial support, and investment strategy are overcome [107] While underscoring the importance and contribution of our findings, this study provides some practical and policy implications for the government, household consumers, and solar energy companies. This study is expected to help policymakers identify flaws in current doctrines and practices in the energy industry, focusing on designing appropriate policy measures and their proper implementation to smooth clean energy transition to renewables through solar energy adoption nationwide. This requires effective awareness and promotional campaigns that could help in broadening household consumers’ base, as well as generous financial and technical support that could attract potential consumers from all ages and backgrounds to adopt solar PV as a preferred option. For solar technology manufacturing companies, company executives and entrepreneurs should understand the potential enablers and barriers to solar energy adoption, and work towards making solar PV systems affordable by reducing the costs of both solar panels installation and maintenance, while developing the necessary skills and expertise to provide technical support. An increase in solar energy adoption and use not only reduces the cost of electricity but also brings new opportunities for the solar energy sector to dive deeper into the consumer market. It could also increase domestic PV manufacturing to improve supply security and provide economic advantages to the local population.
Photovoltaics is a costly investment, causing many countries to delay its implementation. The study recommends designing policies on solar energy to reduce the taxation or customs duties on solar technologies. Furthermore, schemes should be developed on financial support depending upon first-time solar energy consumers and existing solar energy consumers. A mechanism needs to be designed to encourage people to use solar energy through discounts of different forms. Another aspect to focus on is to create an awareness campaign on solar energy use and its long-term benefits to the environment and climate change. The educational campaign includes seminars and training sessions. In addition, social media should be used to spread awareness about the causes of environmental degradation and climate change and the potential remedies for it.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M. and A.K.; Methodology, A.M. and A.K.; Software, A.K.; Validation, A.M. and A.K.; Formal analysis, A.M. and A.K.; Investigation, A.M. and A.K.; Resources, A.K.; Data curation, A.K.; Writing—original draft, A.M. and A.K.; Writing—review & editing, A.M.; Supervision, A.M.; Project administration, A.M.; Funding acquisition, A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by [Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry Research Chair for Economic Studies] grant number [Chair/DVC/HURC/19/01] and the APC was funded by [Oman Chamber of Commerce and Industry Research Chair for Economic Studies Chair/DVC/HURC/19/01].

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Renewable capacity growth by technology, 2005–2028. Source: [1].
Figure 1. Renewable capacity growth by technology, 2005–2028. Source: [1].
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Figure 2. (a–c) Photovoltaic power potential in Oman. (Source: Author’s customized from Global Solar Atlas [31]).
Figure 2. (a–c) Photovoltaic power potential in Oman. (Source: Author’s customized from Global Solar Atlas [31]).
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Figure 3. Percentage of Omanis using solar energy. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 3. Percentage of Omanis using solar energy. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 4. Use of solar energy in different governorates. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 4. Use of solar energy in different governorates. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 5. Barriers to solar energy consumption in Oman. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 5. Barriers to solar energy consumption in Oman. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 6. PCA plot of barriers to solar energy program. Source: authors’ work.
Figure 6. PCA plot of barriers to solar energy program. Source: authors’ work.
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Figure 7. Promotional factors for solar energy program in Oman. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 7. Promotional factors for solar energy program in Oman. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 8. PCA plot of factors promoting the solar energy program. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 8. PCA plot of factors promoting the solar energy program. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 9. Percentage of solar energy use in the future by residency. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 9. Percentage of solar energy use in the future by residency. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 10. Percentage of solar energy use in the future by age. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 10. Percentage of solar energy use in the future by age. Source: Authors’ work.
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Figure 11. Awareness of solar energy programs and SAHIM projects and willingness to use solar energy in the future. Source: Authors’ work.
Figure 11. Awareness of solar energy programs and SAHIM projects and willingness to use solar energy in the future. Source: Authors’ work.
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Table 1. Descriptive analysis.
Table 1. Descriptive analysis.
Gender% of TotalCumulative %Solar Energy Use at Home in Oman% of TotalCumulative %
Female43.4%43.4%Never68.1%68.1%
Male56.6%100.0%using the last 1–2 years8.0%76.1%
using the last 6–12 months6.2%82.3%
Resident% of TotalCumulative %using less than 6-month8.0%90.3%
Al Batinah North10.6%10.6%using more than 3 years7.1%97.3%
Al Batinah South6.2%16.8%using the last 2–3 years2.7%100.0%
Al Buraymi0.9%17.7%Age (Years)% of TotalCumulative %
Al Dakhiliyah22.1%39.8%20–2525.7%25.7%
Al Dhahirah3.5%43.4%26–3113.3%38.9%
Al Sharqiyah North2.7%46.0%32–3717.7%56.6%
Al Sharqiyah South2.7%48.7%38–4315.0%71.7%
Al Wusta0.9%49.6%44–4914.2%85.8%
Dhofar0.9%50.4%Above 5014.2%100.0%
Muscat49.6%100.0%
Aware of the SAHIM II and I projects in Oman% of TotalCumulative %Awareness of the solar energy programs in Oman% of TotalCumulative %
No68.1%68.1%No40.7%40.7%
Yes31.9%100.0%Yes59.3%100.0%
Table 2. Kruskal–Wallis H-test for solar energy use under various constraints.
Table 2. Kruskal–Wallis H-test for solar energy use under various constraints.
Variablesχ2dfpε2
Solar energy use under various constraints
High installation cost0.092110.7620.00008
High maintenance cost1.436610.2310.0128
Lack of technical support5.77210.0160.0515
Lack of awareness8.886910.0030.0793
Solar energy awareness
High installation cost0.35210.5530.00314
High maintenance cost1.55210.2130.01386
Lack of technical support0.81110.3680.00724
Lack of awareness5.05310.0250.04512
Source: Authors’ work.
Table 3. Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner pairwise comparison.
Table 3. Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner pairwise comparison.
Solar Energy Use under Various Constraints (Lack of Technical Support)Wp
NoYes−3.400.0016
Solar Energy Use under Various Constraints (Lack of Awareness)
NoYes−4.220.003
Source: Authors’ work.
Table 4. Kruskal–Wallis H-test for solar energy use, future, and perceptions towards various promotion programs.
Table 4. Kruskal–Wallis H-test for solar energy use, future, and perceptions towards various promotion programs.
Variablesχ2dfpε2
Solar energy use under various promotion constraints
Government incentives5.2750.3840.047
Financial support5.3450.3750.0477
Improved quality6.3850.2710.057
Public-private partnership5.1850.3950.0462
Solar energy future use under various promotion constraints
Government incentives0.0448710.8320.0004
Financial support0.003810.9510.00003
Improved quality0.110110.740.0001
Public-private partnership0.3931310.5310.00351
SAHIM project awareness under various promotion constraints
Government incentives0.020110.8870.0002
Financial support0.939310.3320.00839
Improved quality3.723910.0540.03325
Public-private partnership2.103210.1470.01878
Perceptions of residents under various promotion constraints
Government incentives14.6390.1010.1307
Financial support10.8290.2880.0966
Improved quality5.1590.8210.0459
Public-private partnership11.2190.2620.1001
Clear solar energy policy10.2690.330.0916
Source: Authors’ work.
Table 5. Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner pairwise comparison.
Table 5. Dwass–Steel–Critchclow–Fligner pairwise comparison.
SAHIM Project Awareness under Various Promotions Constraints (Improved Quality)Wp
NoYes−2.730.054
Source: Authors’ work.
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Mishrif, A.; Khan, A. Non-Industrial Solar Energy Use, Barriers, and Readiness: Case Study of Oman. Energies 2024, 17, 3917. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163917

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Mishrif A, Khan A. Non-Industrial Solar Energy Use, Barriers, and Readiness: Case Study of Oman. Energies. 2024; 17(16):3917. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163917

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Mishrif, Ashraf, and Asharul Khan. 2024. "Non-Industrial Solar Energy Use, Barriers, and Readiness: Case Study of Oman" Energies 17, no. 16: 3917. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163917

APA Style

Mishrif, A., & Khan, A. (2024). Non-Industrial Solar Energy Use, Barriers, and Readiness: Case Study of Oman. Energies, 17(16), 3917. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17163917

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