Scalable Microgrid Process Model: The Results of an Off-Grid Household Experiment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Materials and Methods
- 2017–2018—Phase I: Exploration of the state of the art and available technological solutions. Key activities: a review of Polish and international literature on microgrid implementation; 15 in-depth interviews conducted with scientific experts representing leading academic centres in Poland and with energy industry experts. Material collected: a knowledge base about technological components used in microgrid design, their parameters, producers, and user feedback; IT tools and measurement infrastructure; key elements and technologies of primary technical infrastructure; power system automation standards for microgrids according to specific principles (elimination, restoration, and prevention); algorithms, scenarios, and telecontrol and telesignalling infrastructure enabling various potential scenarios of microgrid operations and infrastructure diagnostics; IT tools for microgrid management; processes in the microgrid—as they are and as they should be (checklist); proportions of controllable to uncontrollable elements, communication, control, and signalling standards in microgrids; solutions for demand management; solutions for building an IT system determining the optimal control of consumers within the overall system, controlling operations of the microgrid, and determining areas of piloted microgrids (potential investors and owners).
- 2019–2020—Phase II: Real-world experiment and implementation of the infrastructure processes to (re)designing of processes in a selected household microgrid. Key activities: defining the microgrid model and its leader/operator, energy mix covering the demand for power and heat; describing the sub-processes of the infrastructure (re)design process: wind turbine selection, PV power plant selection and energy-storage selection; gathering data and carrying out analytical measurements of these sub-processes in selected households. Material collected: standardization of input energy parameters for sustainable power consumption of household buildings; average 24-h and annual energy consumption and its electrical characteristics; analysis of variants of average annual electric power production of selected wind turbine and PV power plants; analysis of variants of energy storage and voltage converter selection; description of identified sub-processes, and development of procedures in the event of sub-optimal selection of the microgrid infrastructure.
- 2021—Phase III: Computer simulation of the established three sub-processes of (re)designing of infrastructure during real-life experiment. To verify the correctness of the selection of microgrid elements, a computer model has been created that considers the power demand profiles developed based on the authors’ own measurements for the working day, holiday, and the vacation period when household members are away.
- nominal apparent powers of renewable-energy sources (also called microsources) and energy-storage device are known, as are the minimum and maximum levels of active and reactive output power;
- nominal capacity of the energy-storage device is known;
- active power of the current output of the microsource is calculated based on the specifications of this source (presented later in this article) and the intensity of solar radiation (PV source) or wind speed (wind turbine);
- profiles of electric power consumption for active and reactive power are known, as well as the measurements of solar radiation intensity and wind speed for the simulated period of the microgrid operation;
- calculating the output power of the microsource was assumed that power losses of the electronic power converter, by means of which the source is connected to the microgrid, are equal to 0; and
- the efficiency of the energy-storage device is 80%.
- load the profiles of electric power consumption for active and reactive power, as well as microsources output power profiles for the simulated period of microgrid operation;
- perform load-flow calculation in the microgrid; and
- save the results of load-flow calculations for the simulated period of microgrid operation to an external file for its later analysis.
- for island (autonomous) operation:
- if generated active power is more than the power demand and the state of charge (SOC) of energy-storage device is 100%, the microsources will be switched off. The operation of microsources will resume as soon as the SOC of the energy-storage device falls below 100% or there is no longer surplus generated active power; and
- if generated active power is less than power demand and the SOC of the energy-storage device is less than or equal to the minimum permissible level, the simulation calculation will be interrupted (the microgrid will not be able to cover the power demand).
- for semi off-grid operation:
- if generated active power is more than the power demand and the SOC of the energy-storage device is 100%, excess energy will be exported to the distribution network;
- if generated active power is less than the power demand and the SOC of the energy-storage device is less than or equal to the minimum permissible level, the missing power will be imported from the distribution network and
- in other cases, the energy-storage device is controlled in such a way as to ensure that the balance of energy exchange with the distribution network is zero.
4. Results
- Core processes:
- Developing technological and organizational infrastructure to minimize the impact of new microgrid elements on the electric power grid to which they are connected (reducing the need to expand the power grid); in this process, we analyze reports from owners/users and potential owners/users of the microgrid regarding changes in infrastructure and monitor the micro- and macro-environment to analyze technological and organizational trends that could have an impact in the future. We make decisions on the directions of microgrid development;
- (Re)designing of infrastructure to analyse and predict the impact of new microgrid elements on the operation of the existing infrastructure and the energy needs of microgrid owners/users in a way that ensures the safety of its operation; in this process, we design new microgrid elements, including simulate the operation of an extensive microgrid to obtain optimal technical and organizational solutions;
- Connecting new sources/loads, aiming to connect new microsources and associated technologies or change the power capacity of the existing ones to ensure a sustainable long-term balance between supply and demand; in this process, we analyse the possibility of connection/redevelopment of new sources/loads from the implementation side (selection a technology, connection of new infrastructure or rebuilding of the existing infrastructure, setup of an extensive infrastructure for the first time, and conducting tests and operational measurements);
- Carrying out traffic and power control to supervise sustainable grid operation, such as local power backup in case of supply failure (scheduled emergency) from the DSO’s network and bidirectional power flows; in this process, we coordinate works related to the construction and operational maintenance of the microgrid;
- Cooperating with energy market entities to develop and continue to improve methods of accounting for new services; in this process, we comply with our obligations towards external and internal energy market entities. We set up operational scenarios for the microgrid.
- Supporting processes:
- 6.
- Maintaining grid operation to ensure that microsources and loads function according to the operational schedules; in this process, we maintain continuous and uninterrupted operation of the microgrid infrastructure through periodic assessments of the technical condition and visual inspections;
- 7.
- Developing human competencies—continuous education in microgrid infrastructure operation, its control and cooperation with external entities; in this process, we define the criteria for the selection of microgrid employees, and in the case of only one owner, we develop and implement a training program dedicated to handling microgrid processes; and
- Management process:
- 8.
- Sustainable energy management to develop mechanisms targeted at meeting the energy needs of microgrid owners/users with microsources’ capacity. These mechanisms control the core and supporting processes of the microgrid; in this process, we manage the measurement infrastructure, define the regulation of energy consumption, and supervise the microgrid.
- Electricity demand is greater than the production capacity of energy sources (wind turbine + PV power plant). The missing power is drawn from energy storage, which is being discharged;
- RES fully covers the electric power demand, i.e., all power produced is consumed in the microgrid; and
- Electricity demand is less than production capacity, and surplus power is stored in energy storage.
- when surplus power is generated and SOC of the energy-storage device reaches 100%, microsources will be turned off until the energy-storage device is able to absorb the surplus power;
- if there is a shortage of generated power and at the same time the minimum permissible SOC of energy-storage device is reached, simulation calculations will be interrupted;
- the efficiency of energy-storage device is 80%; and
- three vacation periods are expected to occur on the following dates: 8 February 2020—23 February 2020, 11 June 2020—14 June 2020, and 1 August 2020—16 August 2020.
- Install energy storage with greater capacity;
- Reduce power demand of the household;
- Provide the microgrid with an additional energy source independent of weather conditions (e.g., a gas microturbine or a power generation set with reciprocating engine), activated in the event of excessive discharge of the energy-storage device; and
- Connecting the microgrid to the distribution grid while minimizing the importation of electric power from this grid (semi off-grid operation).
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
- Finalizing the description of eight key processes for designing a microgrid process map;
- Development of a scalable microgrid process model;
- Presentation of laboratory experimental results;
- Presentation of the results of computer simulations that have validated the robust-ness of our model; and
- Discussion and evaluation of the results according to a scalable microgrid process model.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
No. | Times Cited (WoS) | Paper |
1 | 1473 | Pogaku N, Prodanović M, and Green TC. Modeling, analysis and testing of autonomous operation of an inverter-based microgrid. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 2007;22. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2006.890003 |
2 | 1265 | Olivares DE, Mehrizi-Sani A, Etemadi AH, Cañizares CA, Iravani R, Kazerani M, et al. Trends in microgrid control. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid 2014;5. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2013.2295514 |
3 | 947 | Katiraei F, and Iravani MR. Power management strategies for a microgrid with multiple distributed generation units. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 2006;21. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2006.879260 |
4 | 828 | Lasseter RH, and Paigi P. Microgrid: A conceptual solution. PESC Record - IEEE Annual Power Electronics Specialists Conference, vol. 6, 2004. https://doi.org/10.1109/PESC.2004.1354758 |
5 | 713 | Li YW, and Kao CN. An accurate power control strategy for power-electronics-interfaced distributed generation units operating in a low-voltage multibus microgrid. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 2009;24. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2009.2022828 |
6 | 640 | Liu X, Wang P, and Loh PC. A hybrid AC/DC microgrid and its coordination control. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid 2011;2. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2011.211616 |
7 | 600 | Kanchev H, Lu D, Colas F, Lazarov V, and Francois B. Energy management and operational planning of a microgrid with a PV-based active generator for smart grid applications. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics 2011;58. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2011.2119451 |
8 | 586 | Dimeas AL, and Hatziargyriou ND. Operation of a multiagent system for microgrid control. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems 2005;20. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2005.852060 |
9 | 568 | Kakigano H, Miura Y, and Ise T. Low-voltage bipolar-type dc microgrid for super high quality distribution. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics 2010;25. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPEL.2010.2077682 |
10 | 562 | Chen C, Duan S, Cai T, Liu B, and Hu G. Smart energy management system for optimal microgrid economic operation. IET Renewable Power Generation 2011;5. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2010.0052 |
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No. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Process Name | Developing Technological and Organizational Infrastructure | (Re)designing of Infrastructure | Connecting New Sources/Loads | Carrying out Traffic and Power Control | Cooperating with Energy Market Entities | Maintaining Grid Operations | Developing Human Competencies | Sustainable-Energy Management |
Step 1: 10 most quoted papers | ||||||||
[30] | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
[31] | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 2 |
[32] | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
[33] | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
[34] | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 |
[35] | 2 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
[36] | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 3 |
[37] | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 1 |
[38] | 2 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
[39] | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 3 |
Step 2: Experts’ choice | ||||||||
[40] | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
[41] | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
[42] | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
[43] | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
[44] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
[45] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 |
[46] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
[47] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
[48] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 |
[49] | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Main Building Consumers | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Device | Quantity | Power | Estimated Duration of Use per Day | Estimated Energy Consumption per Day |
[type] | [pcs] | [kW] | [hrs] | [kWh] |
Fridge/freezer | 1 | 1.10 | 2.50 | 2.75 |
TV | 1 | 0.10 | 6.00 | 0.60 |
Gas boiler controller and boiler room equipment | 1 | 0.07 | 24.00 | 1.68 |
Desktop computer | 1 | 0.40 | 0.50 | 0.20 |
Laptop computer | 1 | 0.10 | 2.00 | 0.20 |
Dishwasher | 1 | 1.60 | 0.50 | 0.80 |
Food processor | 1 | 2.00 | 0.20 | 0.40 |
Washing machine | 1 | 2.10 | 0.50 | 1.05 |
Microwave oven | 1 | 1.10 | 0.07 | 0.08 |
Electric oven | 1 | 2.00 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
Coffee maker | 1 | 1.90 | 0.10 | 0.19 |
Cordless kettle | 1 | 2.00 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
Lighting (light points) | 36 | 0.01 | 0.50 | 0.18 |
Iron | 1 | 1.50 | 0.25 | 0.38 |
Audio equipment | 1 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.01 |
Main consumers in the outbuilding | ||||
[type] | [pcs] | [kW] | [hrs] | [kWh] |
Lighting | 4 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.01 |
Total | 8.71 |
Year | Electric Power consumption 1st Half of the Year | Electric Power Consumption 2nd Half of the Year | Annual Power Consumption | Average 24-h Power Consumption |
---|---|---|---|---|
[kWh] | [kWh] | [kWh] | [kWh/day] | |
2019 | 1503 | 1524 | 3027 | 8.7 |
2018 | 1664 | 1602 | 3266 | 8.9 |
2017 | 1822 | 1626 | 3448 | 9.5 |
2016 | 1860 | 1998 | 3858 | 10.5 |
2015 | 1722 | 2047 | 3769 | 10.2 |
2014 | 1772 | 1819 | 3591 | 9.7 |
Overhead Joint Fuse Protection | Type of Measuring System | Power Limiter | Connection Capacity = Contracted Capacity = Household Peak Capacity | Internal Power Line Cable * | Power Cable for Outbuilding * | Overhead Feeding * |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In = 32 A | Direct meter | C25A overcurrent circuit breaker | P = 11 kW | YDYżo 5 × 10 mm2 | YKYżo 5 × 10 mm2 | AsXSn 4 × 16 mm2 |
Wind Type | Wind Speed | Charging Power of IstaBreeze® i-2000 48 V in Watts | Annual Energy Produced [kWh/Year] | |
---|---|---|---|---|
km/h | m/s, | |||
Calm | <1 | <0.3 | start | - |
Breeze | 2–5 | 0.3–1.5 | start | - |
Light wind | 6–11 | 1.6–3.3 | 100 | 876 |
Weak wind | 12–19 | 3.4–5.4 | 200 | 1752 |
Moderate wind | 20–28 | 5.5–7.9 | 610 | 5343.6 |
Fresh wind | 29–38 | 8.0–10.7 | 860 | 7533.6 |
Strong wind | 39–49 | 10.8–13.8 | 1600 watts at 12 m/s; 2000 watts at 13 m/s | From 14,016 to 17,520 |
Stiff wind | 50–61 | 13.9–17.1 | 2120 watts at 14.5 m/s with autonomous monitoring | 18,571 |
Stormy wind | 62–74 | 17.2–20.7 | 2120 W autonomously monitored, with longer automatic stops | 18,571 |
Sunshine [W/m2] | Relative Efficiency [%] |
---|---|
1000 | 100 |
400 | 98 |
200 | 96 |
100 | 92 |
Period | Minimum SOC of the Energy-Storage Device [%] | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
60 | 50 | 40 | 30 | 20 | 10 | 0 | |
January | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
February | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
March | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
April | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
May | Not Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
June | Not Possible | Not Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
July | Not Possible | Not Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
August | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Possible | Possible | Possible |
September | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Possible |
October | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
November | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
December | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
Year | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible | Not Possible |
Time Period | Minimum SOC of the Energy-Storage Device [%] | Without Energy-Storage Device | Without Energy-Storage Device and Microsources | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
60 | 50 | 40 | 30 | 20 | 10 | 0 | |||
January | 79.7 7.3 73.9 * | 77.4 5.5 73.0 | 75.1 3.7 72.1 | 73.2 2.6 71.1 | 72.1 2.6 70.0 | 71.0 2.6 68.9 | 69.8 2.6 67.7 | 142.7 105.4 58.4 | 269.5 0.0 269.5 |
February | 5.9 158.6 0.0 | 3.6 156.7 0.0 | 1.3 155.0 0.0 | 0.5 153.7 0.0 | 0.5 153.7 0.0 | 0.5 153.7 0.0 | 0.5 153.7 0.0 | 55.4 230.4 0.0 | 128.9 0.0 128.9 |
March | 22.7 112.0 0.0 | 20.4 108.4 0.0 | 18.1 104.8 0.0 | 15.9 101.3 0.0 | 14.5 99.1 0.0 | 13.3 97.3 0.0 | 12.2 95.5 0.0 | 116.2 255.9 0.0 | 261.0 0.0 261.0 |
April | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 0.7 234.3 0.0 | 92.2 376.5 0.0 | 253.3 0.0 253.3 |
May | 1.2 232.8 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 0.8 232.2 0.0 | 96.5 380.2 0.0 | 265.3 0.0 265.3 |
June | 1.9 278.8 0.0 | 0.8 277.0 0.0 | 0.7 276.9 0.0 | 0.7 276.9 0.0 | 0.7 276.9 0.0 | 0.7 276.9 0.0 | 0.7 276.9 0.0 | 83.9 404.9 0.0 | 221.0 0.0 221.0 |
July | 2.4 283.8 0.0 | 1.3 282.0 0.0 | 0.8 281.2 0.0 | 0.8 281.2 0.0 | 0.8 281.2 0.0 | 0.8 281.2 0.0 | 0.8 281.2 0.0 | 99.0 433.4 0.0 | 259.0 0.0 259.0 |
August | 6.4 341.3 0.0 | 4.1 339.6 0.0 | 1.8 337.8 0.0 | 0.5 337.4 0.0 | 0.5 337.4 0.0 | 0.5 337.4 0.0 | 0.5 337.4 0.0 | 62.4 422.1 0.0 | 146.7 0.0 146.7 |
September | 8.5 85.3 0.0 | 6.3 83.7 0.0 | 5.1 83.7 0.0 | 4.0 83.7 0.0 | 2.8 83.7 0.0 | 1.7 83.7 0.0 | 0.9 83.7 0.0 | 119.3 252.3 0.0 | 251.2 0.0 251.2 |
October | 89.5 15.4 77.2 | 88.3 15.4 76.0 | 87.2 15.4 74.9 | 86.0 15.4 73.7 | 84.9 15.4 72.6 | 83.7 15.4 71.4 | 82.6 15.4 70.3 | 152.4 107.2 66.6 | 261.3 0.0 261.3 |
November | 81.2 0.2 81.0 | 80.1 0.2 79.9 | 79.0 0.2 78.8 | 77.8 0.2 77.6 | 76.7 0.2 76.5 | 75.5 0.2 75.3 | 74.4 0.2 74.2 | 127.4 65.5 75.0 | 203.6 0.0 203.6 |
December | 91.9 27.8 69.7 | 89.0 25.0 69.0 | 87.8 25.0 67.8 | 86.7 25.0 66.7 | 85.5 25.0 65.5 | 84.4 25.0 64.4 | 83.3 25.0 63.3 | 142.5 100.4 62.2 | 261.1 0.0 261.1 |
Year | 411.4 1756.9 0.0 | 396.7 1735.6 0.0 | 385.6 1720.0 0.0 | 376.6 1707.7 0.0 | 369.5 1698.4 0.0 | 362.6 1689.3 0.0 | 355.8 1680.4 0.0 | 1296.2 3140.8 0.0 | 2781.7 0.0 2781.7 |
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Sysko-Romańczuk, S.; Kluj, G.; Hawrysz, L.; Rokicki, Ł.; Robak, S. Scalable Microgrid Process Model: The Results of an Off-Grid Household Experiment. Energies 2021, 14, 7139. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217139
Sysko-Romańczuk S, Kluj G, Hawrysz L, Rokicki Ł, Robak S. Scalable Microgrid Process Model: The Results of an Off-Grid Household Experiment. Energies. 2021; 14(21):7139. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217139
Chicago/Turabian StyleSysko-Romańczuk, Sylwia, Grzegorz Kluj, Liliana Hawrysz, Łukasz Rokicki, and Sylwester Robak. 2021. "Scalable Microgrid Process Model: The Results of an Off-Grid Household Experiment" Energies 14, no. 21: 7139. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217139
APA StyleSysko-Romańczuk, S., Kluj, G., Hawrysz, L., Rokicki, Ł., & Robak, S. (2021). Scalable Microgrid Process Model: The Results of an Off-Grid Household Experiment. Energies, 14(21), 7139. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14217139