Battery Energy Storage Systems in the United Kingdom: A Review of Current State-of-the-Art and Future Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. BESS Projects in the UK
3. BESS Technologies
3.1. Lead-Acid
3.2. Lithium-Ion
3.3. Vanadium Redox Flow
3.4. Sodium Nickel Chloride
3.5. Summary of Battery Technologies
4. Ancillary Services Provided by BESSs in Power Systems
- Short-term (system enhancement): to ensure the stability, robust operation and reliability of the electrical grid via the provision of rapid-response services, responding to small-time scale (seconds to several minutes) fluctuations in generation and demand.
- Customer energy management: to enhance the power quality of a specific part of the grid by mitigating short-term power delivery issues, e.g., supply interruptions and voltage dips.
- Long-term (bulk energy): to boost the system’s efficiency and reduce the electricity costs by providing services that operate over a long period of time, which can be several hours.
- Renewable energy integration: to enhance the energy-efficient and cost-effective penetration and operation of RESs into the grid. This can be achieved by smoothing the output and control the ramp rate of RESs in order to eliminate rapid voltage and power swings on the grid. Since this paper is focused on the UK, where RESs are gradually overtaking the coal-fired generation, it seems reasonable to consider the renewable energy related applications as a distinct family of applications [1].
4.1. Short-Term Applications
4.1.1. Voltage Support
4.1.2. Frequency Regulation
4.1.3. Electric Supply Reserve Capacity
4.1.4. Black Start
4.2. Long-Term Applications
4.2.1. Electric Energy Time-Shift
4.2.2. Electric Supply Capacity
4.2.3. Peak Shaving
4.2.4. TS/DS Upgrade Deferral
4.2.5. Transmission Congestion Relief
4.3. Renewable Energy Integration Applications
Renewable Capacity Firming
4.4. Customer Energy Management Applications
4.4.1. Power Quality Enhancement
4.4.2. Power Reliability
4.4.3. Electric Bill Management
4.5. Location of Applications within the Power System
5. Future Applications and Research Gaps
5.1. Virtual Inertia Provision
5.2. Enhancement of Distribution System Resilience
5.3. Implementation of Active Filtering Function
5.4. Voltage Unbalance Mitigation
5.5. Coordination and Optimisation of BESS Units
5.6. Impact on State of Charge and Battery Lifetime Enhancement
5.7. Remuneration for Each Service
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AF | Active filter |
BESS | Battery energy storage system |
CLNR | Customer-led network revolution |
DER | Distributed energy resource |
DG | Distributed generation |
DNO | Distribution network operator |
DOD | Depth of discharge |
DOE | Department of Energy |
DS | Distribution system |
EASE | European Association for Storage of Energy |
EMS | Energy management system |
ESO | Electricity system operator |
EV | Electric vehicle |
HP | Heat pump |
LCNF | Low Carbon Networks Fund |
LCT | Low carbon technology |
Li-ion | Lithium ion |
LV | Low voltage |
MESS | Mobile energy storage system |
MG | Microgrid |
MV | Medium voltage |
Na | Sodium |
NaCl | Sodium chloride |
NaNiCl | Sodium nickel chloride |
Ni | Nickel |
Ni-Cd | Nickel cadmium |
Ni-MH | Nickel metal hydride |
Lead acid | |
PD | Primary distribution |
PHEV | Plug-in Electric Vehicles |
PoC | Point of connection |
PV | Photovoltaic |
REA | Renewable Energy Association |
RES | Renewable energy source |
SA | Smart appliance |
SD | Secondary distribution |
SG | Synchronous generator |
SOC | State of charge |
STATCOM | Static synchronous compensator |
TESS | Transportable energy storage system |
TOU | Time-of-use |
TS | Transmission system |
UK | United Kingdom |
VLA | Vented lead-acid |
VRF | Vanadium redox flow |
VRLA | Valve regulated lead-acid |
WPD | Western Power Distribution |
Appendix A
Number | Location | Technology | Rated Power (kW) | Service Provided | Voltage Level |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland | Li-ion | 10,000 | Frequency regulation | TR, V = 275 kV |
2 | Leighton Buzzard, England [22] | Li-ion | 6000 | Electric energy time shift, Frequency regulation Electric supply reserve capacity, Spinning reserve TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 11 kV |
3 | Rise Carr, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 2500 | Voltage support, Electric energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 6.6 kV |
4 | Wolverhampton, England [19,120,121] | Li-ion titanate | 2000 | Frequency regulation, Power reliability Power quality enhancement | SD, V = 11 kV |
5 | Kirkwall, Scotland [122,123] | Li-ion | 2000 | Transmission congestion relief | SD, V = 11 kV |
6 | Peterhead, Scotland [25] | Li-ion | 1000 | Renewables capacity firming | SD, V = 33 kV |
7 | Dorset, England | Li-ion | 598 | Electric supply reserve capacity, Spinning reserve On-site renewable generation shifting, Renewables capacity firming | SD, V = 11 kV |
8 | Butleigh, England [26] | Li-ion | 300 | Electric bill management, Electric energy time shift Renewables capacity firming, Renewables energy time shift | SD, V = 11 kV |
9 | Berkshire, England | Li-ion | 250 | On-site renewable generation shifting Renewables capacity firming | SD, V = 11 kV |
10 | Milton Keynes, England [27,28] | NaNiCl | 250 | TS/DS upgrade deferral, Voltage support Transmission congestion relief, Electric supply reserve capacity, Spinning reserve | SD, V = 11 kV |
11 | Rise Carr, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 100 | Voltage support, Electric energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 6.6 kV |
12 | Denwick, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 100 | Voltage support, Electric energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 20 kV |
13 | Slough, England [29] | Li-ion | 75 | Renewables energy time shift Renewables capacity firming | SD, V = 0.24 kV |
14 | Isle of Eigg, Scotland [30,31,124] | PA | 60 | On-site renewable generation shifting, Electric supply capacity Frequency regulation, Voltage support | SD, V = 3.3 kV |
15 | Rise Carr, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 50 | Voltage support, Electric energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 6.6 kV |
16 | Wooler, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 50 | Voltage support, Electric energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 20 kV |
17 | Maltby, England [23,24] | Li-ion | 50 | Renewables capacity firming, Renewables energy time shift TS/DS upgrade deferral | SD, V = 0.23 kV |
18 | Isle of Muck, Scotland [31] | PA | 45 | On-site renewable generation shifting Electric supply capacity | SD, V = 3.3 kV |
19 | Isle of Rum, Scotland [31] | PA | 45 | On-site renewable generation shifting Electric supply capacity, Renewables energy time shift | N/A |
20 | Isle of Foula, Scotland [31] | PA | 16 | On-site renewable generation shifting Renewables energy time shift | SD, V = 3.3 kV |
21 | Horse Island, Scotland [31] | PA | 12 | Renewables capacity firming, Electric supply capacity On-site renewable generation shifting | N/A |
22 | Flat Holm Island, Wales | PA | 5 | On-site renewable generation shifting Electric supply capacity, Renewables energy time shift | N/A |
23 | Wokingham, England | VRF | 5 | Electric energy time shift Renewables energy time shift | N/A |
24 | Cardiff, South Wales | Li-ion | 2 | Electric bill management | N/A |
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Service No. | Service Name |
---|---|
1 | Voltage support |
2 | Frequency regulation |
3 | Load following |
4 | Electric supply reserve capacity |
5 | Black start |
6 | Renewable capacity firming |
7 | Electric energy time shift |
8 | Load levelling |
9 | Peak shaving |
10 | Electric supply capacity |
11 | TS/DS upgrade deferral |
12 | Transmission congestion relief |
13 | Power quality enhancement |
14 | Power reliability |
15 | Electric bill management |
Service Name | Total Capacity (kW) |
---|---|
Electric energy time shift | 9105 |
TS/DS upgrade deferral | 9100 |
Voltage support | 3110 |
Renewable capacity firming | 2285 |
On-site renewables generation shifting | 1031 |
Renewable energy time shift | 496 |
Technologies | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Pb-acid | mature technology low cost [39,40] tolerance against misuse [1] low maintenance requirements large storage capacity [8,43] spill-proof [44] fast response time low daily self-discharge rate [10] | bulky (low energy density and specific energy [47]) increased cost under low temperature operation [10] reduced lifespan at prolonged discharged state [48,49] low cycling capability low DOD [44] hazardous for the environment [42,43,50,51] |
Li-ion | high energy density [54] high power density high efficiency long life cycle low discharge rate no-memory effect [8,45,47,50] stable discharge voltage wide operating temperature high cycle efficiency [43] packaging flexibility [41] recyclable lithium oxides and salts [42] high specific energy rapidly decreasing costs excellent charge retention high cell voltages very good performance at low temperatures high DOD [53] | increased cost due to protection circuits and packaging [42] availability [53] safety and environmental issues [45] temperature-dependent life cycle [10,46] |
VRF | long life cycle flexible design of power and energy capacity [46] low standby losses simple cell management [8,56] high energy efficiency [10,50,57] low maintenance cost [44] large storage capacity high power output and energy conversion rate suitability for large-scale energy storage [43] low self-discharge [10] durable performance [46] overcharge tolerance high DOD [42,58] | high cost large layout high capital and running costs [8,10,54] unsuitable for small-scale storage applications [42,46,51] low energy density [38,56,59] |
NaNiCl | high energy density long life cycle maintenance-free [8] long discharge time fast response [44,64] high efficiency [42] | high cost high self-discharge [50] heat required to keep the molten state temperature |
Characteristics/Technologies | Pb-acid | Li-ion | VRF | NaNiCl |
---|---|---|---|---|
Power rating [MW] | 0–50 [53] | 0/10–50/100 [9,48,50,53,65] | 0.005/1–1.5/10 [45,46,50,65] | 0/0.001–0.3/1 [45,46] |
Energy rating [MWh] | 0.1/0.25–50/100 [11,45] | 10/4–10/100 [10,11,45,65] | 0.01/4–10/40 [45,65] | 0.12–5 [45] |
Life cycle [cycles × 10] | 0.1/0.5–2/3 [53,66,67] | 0.25/4.5–5/20 [9,10,33,45,50,53,65,66] | 2–5/13+ [10,33,45,46,50,65] | 2.5/4–4.5 [45,46] |
Life [years] | 3/5–15/20 [33,50,53,66] | 2/5–15/20 [9,45,50,53,66] | 2/10–15/20 [45,46,50,53] | 10–14/15 [45,46] |
Efficiency [%] | 70/75–85/92 [50,66] | 70/85–90/100 [9,45,46,50,53,65,66,67] | 60/85–88/90 [45,46,50,53,65] | 85–90 [45,46] |
Energy density [Wh/L] | 50–90 [45,66] | 200–500/600 [45,46,50] | 15/16–33 [10,45,50] | 150–180 [45,46] |
Power density [W/L] | 10–400/700 [45,53] | 1300/1500–10,000 [10,45] | 0.5–2 [45] | 220–300 [45,46] |
Response time | 5–10 ms, <1/4 cycle, a few ms [9,10,45] | 20–1000 ms, <1/4 cycle, a few ms [9,10,33,45,66] | <1/4 cycle, a few ms [33,45] | a few ms [45] |
Discharge time | a few min −4/20+ h [11,66] | 6 min/2 h–4/5 h [50,65,66] | s–8/10 h [45,46,50] | s/min−h [45,46] |
Energy capital cost [$/kWh] | 200–400 [45,50] | 600/900–1700/2500 [45,46,50,65,68] | 150/750–830/1000 [45,46,50,65] | 100/200–500/1000 [45,46] |
Power capital cost [$/kW] | 300–600 [45,50] | 1200/1800–4000/4100 [45,46,50,65,68] | 600–1500 [45,46,50] | l150/300–400/1800 [45,46] |
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Mexis, I.; Todeschini, G. Battery Energy Storage Systems in the United Kingdom: A Review of Current State-of-the-Art and Future Applications. Energies 2020, 13, 3616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143616
Mexis I, Todeschini G. Battery Energy Storage Systems in the United Kingdom: A Review of Current State-of-the-Art and Future Applications. Energies. 2020; 13(14):3616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143616
Chicago/Turabian StyleMexis, Ioannis, and Grazia Todeschini. 2020. "Battery Energy Storage Systems in the United Kingdom: A Review of Current State-of-the-Art and Future Applications" Energies 13, no. 14: 3616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143616
APA StyleMexis, I., & Todeschini, G. (2020). Battery Energy Storage Systems in the United Kingdom: A Review of Current State-of-the-Art and Future Applications. Energies, 13(14), 3616. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13143616