Total Cost of Ownership Model and Significant Cost Parameters for the Design of Electric Bus Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Different Types of Electric Buses
1.2. Aim of the Paper
1.3. Limitations
1.4. Structure of the Paper
2. Model for Total Cost of Ownership
2.1. Method
2.2. Output of the Total Cost of Ownership Model
2.3. Parameters Used to Determine Total Cost of Ownership
- Driver time per year;
- Energy use per year;
- Total driven distance per year;
- Trip distance per year;
- Number of places with chargers (i.e., number of grid connections);
- Total combined power of all chargers;
- Number of chargers;
- Number of buses;
- Bus battery size.
2.4. Simplifications Aimed to Find General Trends Rather than Route-Specific Results
2.5. Cost of Conventional Combustion Engine Buses
3. Model Input Parameters and Variables
3.1. Route Variables
3.2. Timetable Variables
3.3. Bus, Driver and Battery Parameters
3.4. Electric Grid Parameters
3.5. Charger Parameters
3.6. Other Parameters
4. Calculating TCO Input Variables from Timetable and Bus Route Parameters
4.1. Battery Size and Need to Charge during the Day
4.2. Determining the Number of Buses Needed to Drive the Trips
4.3. Determining the Number of Extra Buses to Provide Time to Charge
4.3.1. Extra Buses for End-Stop Charging for a Whole Day (EndStop1)
4.3.2. Extra Buses for End-Stop Charging during Off-Peak Time Only (EndStop2)
4.4. Number of Chargers
4.5. Calculating Energy Use and Driving Distance
4.6. Calculating Total Driver Time
4.7. TCO for Combustion Engine Buses
5. TCO Analysis
5.1. Cost Comparison for Different Bus Types
5.2. TCO Variations for Different Timetables
5.3. TCO with Future Cost Levels
6. Concluding Discussions
6.1. Main Findings
- A new model that demonstrates how to calculate the TCO for electric buses that depends on the nine most significant input variables. The calculations result in four operating and three annual depreciation cost parameters that forms the TCO.
- Testing of the method in a Swedish context from 2019 showed that the TCO for electric buses is generally in line with buses powered by biomethane and slightly higher than buses powered by HVO. However, the TCO can be both higher or lower depending on cost variations related to departures per hour, electric grid connections, the distance to the depot, and the length of the route. It is likely that future TCOs will be lower for electric buses when compared to buses powered by biomethane or HVO, mainly due to lower prices for batteries and buses and costs related to maintenance.
6.2. Critical Assessment and Comparisons with Other Studies
6.3. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Cost Parameters | HVO | Biomethane | Electricity | |
---|---|---|---|---|
End-Stop | End-Stop Off-Peak | |||
Price (Million SEK) | 2.2 | 2.5 | 3 (excl. battery) | |
Battery capacity (kWh) | - | - | 100 | 200 |
Max energy used between charging (kWh) | - | - | 25 | 75 |
Maintenance including chargers (SEK/km) | 3 | 3.6 | 3.3 | 3.3 |
Bus Economic Life (year) | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 |
Battery Economic Life (year) | - | - | 7 | 7 |
Battery Price (SEK/kWh) | - | - | 4000 | 4000 |
Energy Cost (SEK/kWh) | 3.5 | 4 | 0.82 | 0.82 |
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Grauers, A.; Borén, S.; Enerbäck, O. Total Cost of Ownership Model and Significant Cost Parameters for the Design of Electric Bus Systems. Energies 2020, 13, 3262. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13123262
Grauers A, Borén S, Enerbäck O. Total Cost of Ownership Model and Significant Cost Parameters for the Design of Electric Bus Systems. Energies. 2020; 13(12):3262. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13123262
Chicago/Turabian StyleGrauers, Anders, Sven Borén, and Oscar Enerbäck. 2020. "Total Cost of Ownership Model and Significant Cost Parameters for the Design of Electric Bus Systems" Energies 13, no. 12: 3262. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13123262