Achievements of the European Union Countries in Seeking a Sustainable Electricity Sector
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. EU Policy in the Electricity Sector
2.1. Policy That Seeks to Liberalize Electricity Sector
- (1)
- Efficiency, costs, and prices (i.e., improved productivity of electricity industry, increased economic efficiency, lower electricity prices; improved work productivity, creation of competition, user choice, privatization);
- (2)
- Development and reliability of renewable energy (i.e., to promote demand management, reduce the impact on the environment, improve reliability of electricity supply, eliminate price anomalies);
- (3)
- Increasing investment and changes of capital structure (i.e., to increase trust of investors, reduce government debt, reduce state ownership, promote foreign investment, develop capital markets);
- (4)
- Social welfare (i.e., to raise accessibility, accelerate electrification).
2.2. Policy That Seeks Smarter and More Sustainable Electricity
3. Assessment Methodology
3.1. Selection of Assessment Indicators
- review and analysis of indicators;
- dividing indicators into groups;
- prioritization of indicators;
- testing of indicators and creation of the final set of indicators (verification of reliability of indicators, checking whether the indicators duplicate each other or not, etc.).
3.2. MCDM Tool
4. The Results of the Assessment of Sustainability of EU Countries’ Electricity Sector
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Years | Policy Instrument | Main Aspects |
---|---|---|
1996 | The First Energy Package, Directive 96/92/EC [18] |
|
2003 | The Second Energy Package, Directive 2003/54/EC [19] |
|
2009 | The Third Energy Package, Directive 2009/72/EC [20] |
|
Years | Policy Instrument | Main Aspects |
---|---|---|
2010 | Energy 2020 [21] |
|
2011 | Energy Roadmap 2050 [15] |
|
2015 | Energy Union Package [22] |
|
2016 | Clean Energy for All Europeans [23] |
|
Unit | Electricity Interconnection | Market Concentration Index | Wholesale Electricity Prices | Annual Switching Rates–Electricity Retail Markets | Share of RES in Gross Final Electricity Consumption | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Country | % of Installed Capacity, 2017 | 0–10,000, 2015 | Euro/MWh, 2017 | % of Total Consumers, 2015 | % of Gross Final Consumption, 2017 | |
EU28 | NA | 3725.78 | 43.79 | 6.23156 | 30.75 | |
Austria | 15.31 | 1600.63 | 35.37 | 2.3 | 72.17 | |
Belgium | 18.95 | 3208.8 | 44.85 | NA | 17.24 | |
Bulgaria | 7.08 | 3210.43 | 39.3 | NA | 19.12 | |
Croatia | 51.99 | 7304.97 | NA | 2.32 | 46.42 | |
Cyprus | NA | 9551.25 | NA | 0 | 8.9 | |
Czech Republic | 19.3 | 4072.01 | 37 | 3.6 | 13.65 | |
Denmark | 50.57 | 932.98 | 30.97 | NA | 60.36 | |
Estonia | 23.67 | 7134.23 | 33.22 | 2 | 17.03 | |
Finland | 28.78 | 1087.98 | 33.21 | 12.5 | 35.22 | |
France | 9.44 | 5928.58 | 45.3 | 4.3 | 19.91 | |
Germany | 8.95 | 377.87 | 34.7 | 8.7 | 34.41 | |
Greece | 10.6 | 3480.26 | 54.7 | 0.33 | 24.47 | |
Hungary | 58.25 | 2123.74 | 50.36 | NA | 7.49 | |
Ireland | 7.41 | 2318.55 | 46.91 | 14 | 30.09 | |
Italy | 8.18 | 814.86 | 53.94 | 8 | 34.1 | |
Latvia | 23.67 | 9080.26 | 34.7 | 0 | 54.36 | |
Lithuania | 23.67 | 5055.44 | 35.15 | 0 | 18.25 | |
Luxembourg | 109.22 | 5405.14 | NA | 0.07 | 8.05 | |
Malta | 24.24 | 9297.4 | NA | NA | 6.58 | |
Netherlands | 18.11 | 949.55 | 39.41 | 15.1 | 13.8 | |
Poland | 4.05 | 1541.77 | 37.52 | 0.86 | 13.09 | |
Portugal | 8.73 | 3155.75 | 53.42 | 26.56 | 54.17 | |
Romania | 6.92 | 1367.48 | 48.38 | 0.066 | 41.63 | |
Slovakia | 43.29 | 5694.96 | 40.98 | 2.74 | 21.34 | |
Slovenia | 83.56 | 5872.69 | 49.52 | 6.65 | 32.43 | |
Spain | 5.79 | 968.57 | 53.84 | 10.73 | 36.34 | |
Sweden | 25.61 | 2079.41 | 31.38 | 10.3 | 65.89 | |
United Kingdom | ≈5.00 | 706.19 | 51.76 | 12.2 | 28.11 |
Economic | Environmental | Energy Security | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indicator | Wholesale Electricity Prices | Household Electricity Prices | Distribution Losses | Transformation Losses | Share of Renewable Energy | Electricity Interconnection | Demand Fulfilment | Import Dependency from Non-EU Countries |
Measurement | kWh/Eur | kWh/Eur | %, GWh | TOE/GWh | % | % | % | % |
Target value | min | min | min | min | max | max | max | min |
Weight | 1/7 | 1/7 | 1/14 | 1/14 | 1/7 | 1/7 | 1/7 | 1/7 |
Belgium | 0.2265 | 0.4726 | 4.44 | 0.1059 | 17.24 | 18.95 | 99.00 | 0.00 |
Bulgaria | 0.2715 | 0.2093 | 11.07 | 0.1315 | 19.12 | 7.08 | 130.62 | 0.36 |
Czech Republic | 0.3005 | 0.4082 | 7.41 | 0.0670 | 13.65 | 19.3 | 133.30 | 0.00 |
Denmark | 0.2257 | 0.2768 | 5.20 | 0.0002 | 60.36 | 50.57 | 91.51 | 16.85 |
Germany | 0.2648 | 0.4464 | 5.09 | 0.0735 | 34.41 | 8.95 | 117.08 | 0.00 |
Estonia | 0.1745 | 0.1870 | 10.09 | 0.1243 | 17.03 | 23.67 | 151.80 | 0.00 |
Ireland | 0.1961 | 0.3786 | 8.38 | 0.0653 | 30.09 | 7.41 | 106.41 | 0.00 |
Greece | 0.2426 | 0.2522 | 1.98 | 0.0656 | 24.47 | 10.6 | 97.44 | 8.98 |
Spain | 0.3437 | 0.6325 | 11.19 | 0.0920 | 36.34 | 5.79 | 101.97 | 0.00 |
France | 0.1596 | 0.2747 | 8.70 | 0.1344 | 19.91 | 9.44 | 114.56 | 1.45 |
Croatia | 0.2234 | 0.3066 | 10.75 | 0.0172 | 46.42 | 51.99 | 65.88 | 22.77 |
Italy | 0.2732 | 0.3151 | 6.18 | 0.0520 | 34.1 | 8.18 | 92.29 | 7.15 |
Cyprus | 0.2400 | 0.2725 | 5.02 | 0.1250 | 8.9 | 0.00 | 104.73 | 0.00 |
Latvia | 0.3282 | 0.2756 | 7.31 | 0.0200 | 54.36 | 23.67 | 108.22 | 14.72 |
Lithuania | 0.2236 | 0.1842 | 8.34 | 0.0300 | 18.25 | 23.67 | 35.27 | 40.49 |
Luxembourg | 0.1179 | 0.2237 | 2.44 | 0.0119 | 8.05 | 109.22 | 34.13 | 0.00 |
Hungary | 0.2252 | 0.2182 | 8.72 | 0.0825 | 7.49 | 58.25 | 75.47 | 12.28 |
Malta | 0.2506 | 0.4464 | 5.72 | 0.0951 | 6.58 | 24.24 | 66.93 | 0.00 |
Netherlands | 0.1777 | 0.3245 | 4.86 | 0.0482 | 13.8 | 18.11 | 100.25 | 4.47 |
Austria | 0.1744 | 0.3430 | 5.11 | 0.0182 | 72.17 | 15.31 | 103.93 | 0.71 |
Poland | 0.3310 | 0.3331 | 6.83 | 0.0029 | 13.09 | 4.05 | 108.98 | 0.61 |
Portugal | 0.3088 | 0.4872 | 10.70 | 0.0611 | 54.17 | 8.73 | 112.64 | 0.00 |
Romania | 0.2284 | 0.2609 | 14.31 | 0.0736 | 41.63 | 6.92 | 114.82 | 2.54 |
Slovenia | 0.1978 | 0.3119 | 6.56 | 0.0582 | 32.43 | 83.56 | 112.47 | 0.00 |
Slovakia | 0.3447 | 0.3461 | 4.68 | 0.0274 | 21.34 | 43.29 | 98.09 | 0.03 |
Finland | 0.0883 | 0.2774 | 3.36 | 0.0587 | 35.22 | 28.78 | 79.40 | 7.39 |
Sweden | 0.1322 | 0.2914 | 6.50 | 0.0652 | 65.89 | 25.61 | 118.22 | 6.97 |
United Kingdom | 0.1667 | 0.2530 | 8.49 | 0.0775 | 28.11 | 5.00 | 101.23 | 0.00 |
Alternatives | Si+ * | Si− ** | Ci *** | Rank |
---|---|---|---|---|
Slovenia | 0.043 | 0.131 | 0.752 | 1 |
Luxembourg | 0.059 | 0.143 | 0.709 | 2 |
Austria | 0.075 | 0.123 | 0.622 | 3 |
Slovakia | 0.073 | 0.116 | 0.615 | 4 |
Sweden | 0.069 | 0.110 | 0.614 | 5 |
Estonia | 0.083 | 0.118 | 0.587 | 6 |
Denmark | 0.067 | 0.095 | 0.585 | 7 |
Finland | 0.074 | 0.103 | 0.582 | 8 |
Portugal | 0.088 | 0.114 | 0.565 | 9 |
United Kingdom | 0.090 | 0.114 | 0.559 | 10 |
Germany | 0.088 | 0.112 | 0.559 | 11 |
Ireland | 0.089 | 0.112 | 0.558 | 12 |
Czech Republic | 0.089 | 0.112 | 0.557 | 13 |
Romania | 0.088 | 0.109 | 0.555 | 14 |
Belgium | 0.089 | 0.110 | 0.553 | 15 |
Hungary | 0.078 | 0.094 | 0.548 | 16 |
France | 0.092 | 0.110 | 0.546 | 17 |
Malta | 0.092 | 0.109 | 0.544 | 18 |
Netherlands | 0.087 | 0.103 | 0.543 | 19 |
Bulgaria | 0.095 | 0.113 | 0.543 | 20 |
Poland | 0.098 | 0.111 | 0.531 | 21 |
Spain | 0.099 | 0.109 | 0.523 | 22 |
Cyprus | 0.102 | 0.112 | 0.523 | 23 |
Italy | 0.090 | 0.096 | 0.517 | 24 |
Latvia | 0.083 | 0.089 | 0.517 | 25 |
Greece | 0.091 | 0.094 | 0.509 | 26 |
Croatia | 0.083 | 0.078 | 0.485 | 27 |
Lithuania | 0.135 | 0.048 | 0.264 | 28 |
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Siksnelyte, I.; Zavadskas, E.K. Achievements of the European Union Countries in Seeking a Sustainable Electricity Sector. Energies 2019, 12, 2254. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122254
Siksnelyte I, Zavadskas EK. Achievements of the European Union Countries in Seeking a Sustainable Electricity Sector. Energies. 2019; 12(12):2254. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122254
Chicago/Turabian StyleSiksnelyte, Indre, and Edmundas Kazimieras Zavadskas. 2019. "Achievements of the European Union Countries in Seeking a Sustainable Electricity Sector" Energies 12, no. 12: 2254. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12122254