Nanofluids in the Service of High Voltage Transformers: Breakdown Properties of Transformer Oils with Nanoparticles, a Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods of Measurements
3. Breakdown Voltage of Nanofluids
3.1. Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
3.2. Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles
3.3. Silicone Oxide Nanoparticles
3.4. Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles
3.5. Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
3.6. Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
3.7. Other Nanoparticles
4. Lightning Impulse Breakdown Voltage of Nanofluids
4.1. Nitrides and Other Nanoparticles
4.2. Titanium Oxide Nanoparticles
4.3. Silicon Oxide Nanoparticles
4.4. Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles
4.5. Others Nanoparticles
5. Possible Mechanism
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AB | alkyl benzene |
AC | alternating current |
ASTM | The American Society for Testing and Materials |
BDV | breakdown voltage (kV) |
BF | base fluid |
CCO | coconut oil |
CO | corn oil |
CTAB | hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium Bromide |
DC | direct current |
IEC | International Electrotechnical Commission |
LI | lightning impulse |
MO | mineral oil |
NE | natural ester oil |
NF | nanofluid |
NLI | negative lightning impulse |
NP | nanoparticle |
OA | oleic acid |
ODA | octadecanoic acid |
PE | palm ester |
PFAE | palm fatty acid ester |
PLI | positive lightning impulse |
PV/T | hybrig photovoltaic and thermal solar system |
SA | stearic acid |
SBE | soybean ester |
SDBS | sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate |
SO | silicon oil |
TO | transformer oil |
VO | vegetable oil |
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Standards | |||
---|---|---|---|
ASTM D1816 | ASTM D 877 | IEC 60156 | |
Electrodes’ shape | sphere-capped plate | plate | spherical or spherically-capped |
Electrodes’ material | brass | brass | brass or steel |
Gap (mm) | 2 or 1 | 2.54 | 2.5 |
Test temperature | room temperature | ||
Rate of voltage rise | 0.5 kV/s | 3 kV/s | 2 kV/s |
Number of sequence | 5 | 5 | 1–5 different samples |
Time between BDV (s) | 60–90 | 60 | 120 |
Time between filling and start of testing (min) | 3–5 | 2–3 | 2 |
Standards | ||
---|---|---|
ASTM D3300 | IEC 60897 | |
Electrodes’ shape | point to sphere or sphere to sphere | point to sphere |
Electrodes’ material | steel or brass sphere and steel point | steel |
Gap (mm) | 25.4 or 3.8 | 10–25 |
Test temperature | room temperature | 15–30 C |
Number of sequence | 5 | 5 |
Time between filling and start of testing (min) | 2 | 5 |
NP | BF | Surfactant | Size (nm) | Concentration | BDV + (kV) | BDV + enh | BDV − (kV) | BDV − enh | Standard | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
vol% | gap 0.2 mm | |||||||||
FeO | MO | oleic acid | 10.6 | 0.0 | 3.40 | 1.00 | – | – | – | [72] * |
0.2 | 52.68 | 1.05 | – | – | ||||||
1.0 | 54.41 | 1.08 | – | – | ||||||
2.0 | 52.38 | 1.04 | – | – | ||||||
gap 0.3 mm | ||||||||||
0.0 | 3.40 | 1.00 | – | – | ||||||
0.2 | 52.68 | 1.05 | – | – | ||||||
1.0 | 54.41 | 1.08 | – | – | ||||||
2.0 | 52.38 | 1.04 | – | – | ||||||
gap 0.4 mm | ||||||||||
0.0 | 3.40 | 1.00 | – | – | ||||||
0.2 | 52.68 | 1.05 | – | – | ||||||
1.0 | 54.41 | 1.08 | – | – | ||||||
2.0 | 52.38 | 1.04 | – | – | ||||||
gap 0.5 mm | ||||||||||
0.0 | 3.40 | 1.00 | – | – | ||||||
0.2 | 52.68 | 1.05 | – | – | ||||||
1.0 | 54.41 | 1.08 | – | – | ||||||
2.0 | 52.38 | 1.04 | – | – | ||||||
gap 0.6 mm | ||||||||||
0.0 | 3.40 | 1.00 | – | – | ||||||
0.2 | 52.68 | 1.05 | – | – | ||||||
1.0 | 54.41 | 1.08 | – | – | ||||||
2.0 | 52.38 | 1.04 | – | – | ||||||
vol% | ||||||||||
TiO | MO | – | <20 | 0.0 | 49.1 | 1.00 | 66.3 | 1.00 | ASTM D3300 | [75] |
0.075 | 45.1 | 0.92 | 84.6 | 1.28 | ||||||
TiO | MO | – | 0.0 | – | 1.00 | – | – | – | [76] | |
X | – | 1.27 | – | – |
NP | BF | Surfactant | Size (nm) | Concentrations | BDV | BDV enh | Comments | Standard | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FeO | MO | CTAB (0.15 g) | 10 | 0 ppm | 50.24 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [65] * | |
50 ppm | 52.68 | 1.05 | |||||||
100 ppm | 54.41 | 1.08 | |||||||
150 ppm | 52.38 | 1.04 | |||||||
200 ppm | 53.11 | 1.06 | |||||||
250 ppm | 49.09 | 0.98 | |||||||
300 ppm | 44.88 | 0.89 | |||||||
FeO | VO | OA | 30 | 0.000% wr | 49.90 | 1.00 | IEC 156 | [66] | |
0.004% wr | 59.80 | 1.20 | |||||||
FeO | NE | OA | <50 | 0.000% vr | 65.40 | 1.00 | IEC 156 | [67] | |
0.004% vr | 69.70 | 1.07 | |||||||
MO | 70.30 | 1.07 | |||||||
FeO | PFA | OA | 15–20 | 0.00 g/L | 25.64 | 1.00 | ASTM D6871 | [68] | |
0.01 g/L | 36.31 | 1.42 | |||||||
FeO | MO | OA | - | 0.00 g/L | 60.05 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [69] | |
0.05 g/L | 64.37 | 1.07 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 66.26 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.15 g/L | 67.71 | 1.13 | |||||||
0.20 g/L | 70.75 | 1.18 | |||||||
0.40 g/L | 66.42 | 1.11 | |||||||
0.60 g/L | 64.87 | 1.08 | |||||||
0.80 g/L | 60.05 | 1.00 | |||||||
FeO | TO | - | - | 0.00 | 61.04 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [70] | |
X | 70.60 | 1.16 | |||||||
FeO | NE | OA (0.75 g) | 30 | 0.00 | 49.90 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [71] | |
X | 59.80 | 1.20 | |||||||
FeO | NE | OA | <50 | 0.00% w/v | 64.50 | 1.00 | commercial | [74] | |
0.004% w/v | 70.00 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.006% w/v | 73.00 | 1.13 | |||||||
0.008% w/v | 77.70 | 1.20 | |||||||
0.010% w/v | 59.00 | 0.91 | |||||||
0.012% w/v | 51.00 | 0.79 | |||||||
0.014% w/v | 27.00 | 0.42 | |||||||
FeO | NE | OA | <50 | 0.00% w/v | 64.50 | 1.00 | synthesized | [74] | |
0.004% w/v | 54.00 | 0.84 | |||||||
0.006% w/v | 55.00 | 0.85 | |||||||
0.008% w/v | 60.00 | 0.93 | |||||||
0.010% w/v | 66.00 | 1.02 | |||||||
0.012% w/v | 77.80 | 1.21 | |||||||
0.014% w/v | 22.00 | 0.34 | |||||||
TiO-r | MO | - | <20 | 0.000000 phr | 70.60 | 1.00 | moisture 9.18–10.21 ppm; phr—parts per hundred resin | IEC 60156 | [77] * |
0.000393 phr | 69.55 | 0.99 | |||||||
0.000701 phr | 79.30 | 1.12 | |||||||
0.001095 phr | 68.31 | 0.97 | |||||||
0.003401 phr | 66.95 | 0.95 | |||||||
0.005704 phr | 57.14 | 0.81 | |||||||
SO | 0.000000 phr | 66.60 | 0.94 | moisture 9.49–11.62 ppm | |||||
0.000393 phr | 58.23 | 0.82 | |||||||
0.000701 phr | 63.27 | 0.90 | |||||||
0.001095 phr | 77.70 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.003401 phr | 74.99 | 1.06 | |||||||
0005704 phr | 64.36 | 0.91 | |||||||
ODA | 0.000000 phr | 60.30 | 0.85 | moisture 12.40–14.05 ppm | |||||
0.000393 phr | 67.60 | 0.96 | |||||||
0.000701 phr | 72.44 | 1.03 | |||||||
0.001095 phr | 80.50 | 1.14 | |||||||
0.003401 phr | 70.39 | 1.00 | |||||||
0.005704 phr | 56.05 | 0.79 | |||||||
TiO-r | MO | - | 20 | 0.000 g/L | 80.00 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [78] | |
0.003 g/L | 80.80 | 1.01 | |||||||
0.006 g/L | 90.40 | 1.13 | |||||||
0.010 g/L | 78.40 | 0.98 | |||||||
0.030 g/L | 78.40 | 0.98 | |||||||
SA | 0.000 g/L | 80.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
0.003 g/L | 88.80 | 1.11 | |||||||
0.006 g/L | 99.20 | 1.24 | |||||||
0.010 g/L | 107.20 | 1.34 | |||||||
0.030 g/L | 92.00 | 1.15 | |||||||
SO | 0.000 g/L | 80.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
0.003 g/L | 60.00 | 0.75 | |||||||
0.006 g/L | 78.40 | 0.98 | |||||||
0.010 g/L | 76.00 | 0.95 | |||||||
0.030 g/L | 82.40 | 1.03 | |||||||
TiO-r | MO | - | <20 | 0.000 g/L | 71.59 | 1.00 | - | [79] | |
0.003 g/L | 67.33 | 0.94 | |||||||
0.006 g/L | 82.48 | 1.15 | |||||||
0.010 g/L | 77.82 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.030 g/L | 71.76 | 1.00 | |||||||
0.050 g/L | 53.25 | 0.74 | |||||||
TiO | TO | - | <20 | 0 | 67.90 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [80] | |
X | 80.90 | 1.19 | |||||||
TiO-r | MO | - | 20 | 0.0 | 66.11 | 1.00 | No data about type of concentration | IEC 60156 | [81] * |
0.3 | 66.87 | 1.01 | |||||||
0.6 | 74.40 | 1.13 | |||||||
1.0 | 65.12 | 0.99 | |||||||
3.0 | 65.12 | 0.99 | |||||||
5.0 | 53.10 | 0.80 | |||||||
TiO | MO | - | 20 | 0 | 86.00 | 1.00 | [82] | ||
X | 92.70 | 0.93 | |||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0.000 vol% | 67.90 | 1.00 | fresh | IEC 60156 | [83] |
0.075 vol% | 80.90 | 1.19 | |||||||
0.000 vol% | 86.02 | 1.00 | aged | ||||||
0.075 vol% | 92.68 | 1.08 | |||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0.000 vol% | 67.9 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [75] | |
0.075 vol% | 80.9 | 1.19 | |||||||
TiO | MO | CTAB | <100 | 0.0 g/L | 12 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [84] | |
0.1 g/L | 14 | 1.17 | |||||||
0.2 g/L | 19 | 1.58 | |||||||
0.3 g/L | 26 | 2.17 | |||||||
TiO | MO | - | - | 0.000 vol% fr | 32 | 1.00 | after preparation | IEC 60156 | [85] |
0.010 vol% fr | 14 | 0.44 | |||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 22 | 0.69 | |||||||
0.010 vol% fr | 35 | 1.09 | after removing moisture | ||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 38.4 | 1.20 | |||||||
TiO-a | MO | - | 46 | 0.00 vol% | 71.91 | 1.00 | [86] * | ||
0.005 vol% | 74.89 | 1.04 | |||||||
0.050 vol% | 77.80 | 1.08 | |||||||
0.200 vol% | 66.66 | 0.93 | |||||||
0.500 vol% | 57.84 | 0.80 | |||||||
TiO-r | MO | - | 105 | 0.000 vol% | 71.91 | 1.00 | [86] * | ||
0.005 vol% | 83.29 | 1.16 | |||||||
0.05 vol% | 90.01 | 1.25 | |||||||
0.2 vol% | 71.71 | 1.00 | |||||||
0.5 vol% | 61.07 | 0.85 | |||||||
TiO-a | AB | - | 46 | 0.000 vol% | 92.88 | 1.00 | [86] * | ||
0.005 vol% | 102.62 | 1.10 | |||||||
0.05 vol% | 100.38 | 1.08 | |||||||
0.2 vol% | 63.95 | 0.69 | |||||||
0.5 vol% | 54.09 | 0.58 | |||||||
TiO | NE | - | - | 0.000 vol% | 62.71 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [87] | |
0.00625 vol% | 82.23 | 1.31 | |||||||
Time (day) | |||||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0 | 67.47 | 1.00 | pure oil | IEC 60156 | [88] * |
6 | 60.39 | 0.90 | |||||||
12 | 59.10 | 0.88 | |||||||
18 | 55.93 | 0.83 | |||||||
24 | 40.19 | 0.60 | |||||||
30 | 39.20 | 0.58 | |||||||
36 | 28.54 | 0.42 | |||||||
0 | 80.68 | 1.00 | nanofluid | ||||||
6 | 71.08 | 0.88 | |||||||
12 | 66.52 | 0.82 | |||||||
18 | 64.64 | 0.80 | |||||||
24 | 59.40 | 0.74 | |||||||
30 | 60.59 | 0.75 | |||||||
36 | 40.08 | 0.50 | |||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0 | - | 1.00 | fresh | IEC 60156 | [76] |
X | - | 1.19 | |||||||
0 | - | 1.00 | after 6 days | ||||||
X | - | 1.07 | |||||||
TiO | oil | CTAB | <100 | 0.00 g/L | 23.60 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [89] * | |
0.06 g/L | 30.03 | 1.27 | |||||||
0.18 g/L | 29.30 | 1.24 | |||||||
0.24 g/L | 25.04 | 1.04 | |||||||
0.36 g/L | 20.00 | 0.85 | |||||||
TiO | MO | CTAB (3 g/L) | <100 | 0.00 g/L | 19.80 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [90] | |
SBE | 0.00 g/L | 20.60 | 1.04 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 22.30 | 1.13 | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 24.10 | 1.22 | |||||||
0.1 g/L | 25.70 | 1.30 | |||||||
0.15 g/L | 29.40 | 1.48 | |||||||
0.2 g/L | 33.60 | 1.70 | |||||||
PE | 0.00 g/L | 18.90 | 0.95 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 20.20 | 1.02 | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 22.60 | 1.14 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 25.20 | 1.27 | |||||||
0.15 g/L | 26.10 | 1.32 | |||||||
0.20 g/L | 29.10 | 1.47 | |||||||
TiO | TO | - | <100 | 0.000 wt% | 61.20 | 1.00 | IS 6792:1972 | [91] | |
0.005 wt% | 80.36 | 1.31 | |||||||
0.010 wt% | 75.15 | 1.23 | |||||||
0.050 wt% | 57.60 | 0.94 | |||||||
TiO | TO | - | 50 | 0.00 g/L | 69.00 | 1.00 | moisture 25.7 ppm | [92] | |
0.01 g/L | 71.00 | 1.03 | |||||||
0.04 g/L | 77.00 | 1.12 | |||||||
0.07 g/L | 81.00 | 1.17 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 78.00 | 1.13 | |||||||
CTAB | 0.00 g/L | 69.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 82.00 | 1.19 | |||||||
0.04 g/L | 78.00 | 1.13 | |||||||
0.07 g/L | 80.00 | 1.16 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 87.00 | 1.26 | |||||||
SiO | MO | - | 20 | 0.0 g/L | 81.40 | 1.00 | [81] | ||
0.3 g/L | 72.27 | 0.89 | |||||||
0.6 g/L | 77.97 | 0.96 | |||||||
1.0 g/L | 78.58 | 0.97 | |||||||
3.0 g/L | 79.19 | 0.97 | |||||||
5.0 g/L | 79.27 | 0.97 | |||||||
SiO | MO | - | - | 0.00 vol% fr | 32.00 | 1.00 | after preparation | IEC 60156 | [85] |
0.01 vol% fr | 23.80 | 0.74 | |||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 28.80 | 0.90 | |||||||
0.01 vol% fr | 43.20 | 1.35 | after removing moisture | ||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 44.60 | 1.39 | |||||||
SiO | MO | - | 15 | 0.00% mas fr | 51.3 | 1.00 | humidity 10–20 ppm | IEC 60156 | [93] |
0.01% masfr | 61.2 | 1.19 | |||||||
0.02% mas fr | 65.1 | 1.27 | |||||||
0.00% mas fr | 76.00 | 1.00 | humidity 20–30 ppm | ||||||
0.01% mas fr | 85.4 | 1.12 | |||||||
0.02% mas fr | 89.2 | 1.17 | |||||||
SiO | MO | - | 15 | 0.00% mas fr | 51 | 100 | moisture 15 ppm | IEC 60156 | [94] |
001% mas fr | 61 | 120 | |||||||
002% mas fr | 65 | 127 | |||||||
0.00% mas fr | 76 | 1.00 | moisture 25 ppm | ||||||
0.01% mas fr | 85 | 1.12 | |||||||
0.02% mas fr | 89 | 1.17 | |||||||
SiO | MO | - | - | 0.00% mass fr | 76 | 1.00 | humidity 15 ppm | IEC 60156 | [95] |
- | 15 | 0.01% mass fr | 85 | 1.12 | |||||
Z6011 | 25 | 0.01% mass fr | 75 | 0.99 | |||||
0.00% mass fr | 51 | 1.00 | humidity 25 ppm | ||||||
- | 15 | 0.01% mass fr | 61 | 1.20 | |||||
Z6011 | 25 | 0.01% mass fr | 32 | 0.63 | |||||
SiO | MO | - | 0 | 50.9 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [96] | ||
A | 20 | 53.8 | 1.04 | ||||||
B | 20 | 56.8 | 1.12 | ||||||
SiO | CO | - | 10–12 | 0.00 g/L | 33.2 | 1.00 | T = 30 C | IEC 60156 | [97] |
0.05 g/L | 53.6 | 1.61 | |||||||
CCO | 0.00 g/L | 50 | 1.00 | ||||||
0.05 g/L | 54.4 | 1.09 | |||||||
CO | 0.00 g/L | 332 | 1.00 | T = 60 C | |||||
0.05 g/L | 60.6 | 1.83 | |||||||
CCO | 0.00 g/L | 50 | 100 | ||||||
0.05 g/L | 712 | 142 | |||||||
SiO | NE | - | <80 | 0.00 wt% | 30.03 | 1.00 | gap 1 mm | IEC 60156 | [98] * |
0.01 wt% | 34.92 | 1.16 | |||||||
0.05 wt% | 37.96 | 1.26 | |||||||
0.10 wt% | 39.97 | 1.33 | |||||||
0.00 wt% | 39.95 | 1.00 | gap 2.5 mm | ||||||
0.01 wt% | 44.67 | 1.12 | |||||||
0.05 wt% | 52.80 | 1.32 | |||||||
0.10 wt% | 59.81 | 1.50 | |||||||
0.00 wt% | 61.93 | 1.00 | gap 4 mm | ||||||
0.01 wt% | 67.74 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.05 wt% | 79.68 | 1.29 | |||||||
0.10 wt% | 87.74 | 1.42 | |||||||
SiO | MO | OA | - | 0 vol% | 60.9 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [99] | |
20 vol% | 72.9 | 1.20 | |||||||
SiO | MO | OA | 20 | 0.00 vol% fr | 48.14 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [100] | |
0.01 vol% fr | 58.24 | 1.21 | |||||||
0.02 vol% fr | 60.84 | 1.26 | |||||||
0.04 vol% fr | 62.08 | 1.29 | |||||||
0.06 vol% fr | 63.90 | 1.33 | |||||||
0.15 vol% fr | 60.59 | 1.26 | |||||||
SiO | TO | OA | X | 0.00 vol% fr | 1.00 | moisture 10 ppm | [101] | ||
0.01 vol% fr | 58.50 | 1.28 | |||||||
0.02 vol% fr | 61.00 | 1.35 | |||||||
0.05 vol% fr | 62.00 | 1.38 | |||||||
0.10 vol% fr | 64.50 | 1.40 | |||||||
0.20 vol% fr | 59.00 | 1.32 | |||||||
AlO | MO | - | 20 | 0.0 g/L | 58.05 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [81] | |
0.3 g/L | 53.03 | 0.91 | |||||||
0.6 g/L | 57.87 | 1.00 | |||||||
1.0 g/L | 57.97 | 1.00 | |||||||
3.0 g/L | 57.52 | 0.99 | |||||||
5.0 g/L | 52.50 | 0.90 | |||||||
AlO | TO | - | 50 | 0.00 g/L | 69.00 | 1.00 | moisture 25.7 ppm | [92] | |
0.01 g/L | 65.00 | 0.94 | |||||||
0.04 g/L | 65.00 | 0.94 | |||||||
0.07 g/L | 68.00 | 0.99 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 66.00 | 0.96 | |||||||
SDBS | 0.00 g/L | 69.00 | 1.00 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 80.00 | 1.16 | |||||||
0.04 g/L | 88.00 | 1.28 | |||||||
0.07 g/L | 85.00 | 1.23 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 74.00 | 1.07 | |||||||
ZnO | MO | - | - | 0.00 vol% fr | 32.00 | 1.00 | fresh | IEC 60156 | [85] |
0.01 vol% fr | 17.00 | 0.53 | |||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 19.60 | 0.61 | |||||||
0.01 vol% fr | 42.20 | 1.32 | after removing moisture | ||||||
0.075 vol% fr | 45.00 | 1.41 | |||||||
ZnO | MO | - | 34 | 0.000 vol% | 71.62 | 1.00 | [86] | ||
0.005 vol% | 72.38 | 1.1 | |||||||
0.05 vol% | 77.36 | 1.08 | |||||||
0.20 vol% | 61.34 | 0.86 | |||||||
0.50 vol% | 40.88 | 0.57 | |||||||
ZnO | MO | CTAB (3 g/L) | <100 | 0.00 g/L | 19.80 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [90] | |
SBE | 0.00 g/L | 20.60 | 1.04 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 21.70 | 4.10 | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 22.60 | 4.14 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 26.50 | 4.34 | |||||||
0.15 g/L | 29.10 | 4.47 | |||||||
0.20 g/L | 28.70 | 4.45 | |||||||
palm ester | 0.00 g/L | 18.90 | 0.95 | ||||||
0.01 g/L | 20.00 | 1.10 | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 21.60 | 1.09 | |||||||
0.10 g/L | 26.20 | 1.32 | |||||||
0.15 g/L | 26.80 | 1.35 | |||||||
0.20 g/L | 27.30 | 1.38 | |||||||
semiconducting | MO | - | <20 | 0 | 71.59 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [103] | |
low | 78.68 | 1.10 | |||||||
medium | 83.20 | 1.16 | |||||||
high | 75.87 | 1.06 | |||||||
FeO | MO | - | - | 0 | 50.00 | 1.00 | moisture <5 ppm | ASTM D877 | [73] |
X | 50.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
0 | 43.00 | 0.86 | moisture 10–20 ppm | ||||||
X | 47.00 | 0.94 | |||||||
0 | 37.00 | 0.74 | moisture 20–30 ppm | ||||||
X | 44.00 | 0.88 | |||||||
0 | 28.00 | 0.56 | moisture >30 ppm | ||||||
X | 40.00 | 0.80 | |||||||
magnetic NP (ferrofluid EFH-1) | MO | - | - | 0.000 vol% | 12.03 | 1.00 | gap 1.5 mm | IEC 156 | [104] * |
0.082 vol% | 39.62 | 3.29 | |||||||
0.162 vol% | 37.03 | 3.08 | |||||||
0.238 vol% | 40.72 | 3.38 | |||||||
0.312 vol% | 37.79 | 3.14 | |||||||
0.385 vol% | 39.45 | 3.28 | |||||||
0.45 vol% | 42.79 | 3.56 | |||||||
0.52 vol% | 42.41 | 3.52 | |||||||
0.59 vol% | 42.17 | 3.50 | |||||||
0.65 vol% | 31.17 | 2.59 | |||||||
0.000 vol% | 12.62 | 1.00 | gap 2.3 mm | ||||||
0.082 vol% | 11.24 | 0.89 | |||||||
0.162 vol% | 26.69 | 2.11 | |||||||
0.238 vol% | 32.72 | 2.59 | |||||||
0.312 vol% | 32.21 | 2.55 | |||||||
0.385 vol% | 29.45 | 2.33 | |||||||
0.45 vol% | 33.76 | 2.67 | |||||||
0.000 vol% | 10.00 | 1.00 | without magnetic field | ||||||
0.082 vol% | 26.00 | 2.60 | |||||||
0.162 vol% | 32.50 | 3.25 | |||||||
0.238 vol% | 30.50 | 3.05 | |||||||
0.312 vol% | 31.70 | 3.17 | |||||||
0.385 vol% | 30.00 | 3.00 | |||||||
0.000 vol% | 12.50 | 1.00 | with magnetic field | ||||||
0.082 vol% | 41.00 | 3.28 | |||||||
0.162 vol% | 41.50 | 3.32 | |||||||
0.238 vol% | 41.50 | 3.32 | |||||||
0.312 vol% | 41.00 | 3.28 | |||||||
0.385 vol% | 41.50 | 3.32 | |||||||
magnetic NP (ferrofluid EFH-1) | MO | - | - | 0.000 vol% | 12.03 | 1.00 | IEC 156 | [105] * | |
0.082 vol% | 39.62 | 3.29 | |||||||
0.162 vol% | 37.03 | 3.080 | |||||||
0.238 vol% | 40.72 | 3.38 | |||||||
0.312 vol% | 37.79 | 3.14 | |||||||
0.385 vol% | 39.45 | 3.28 | |||||||
0.450 vol% | 42.79 | 3.56 | |||||||
0.520 vol% | 42.41 | 3.52 | |||||||
0.590 vol% | 42.17 | 3.50 | |||||||
0.650 vol% | 31.17 | 2.59 | |||||||
ZrO | - | - | 50 | 0.000 wt% | 61.20 | 1.00 | IS 6792:1972 | [91] | |
0.005 wt% | 67.34 | 1.10 | |||||||
0.010 wt% | 75.24 | 1.23 | |||||||
0.050 wt% | 66.13 | 1.08 | |||||||
fullerene spherical | MO | - | 70 | 0.00% mas fr | 51.00 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [109] | |
0.05% mas fr | 61.00 | 1.20 | |||||||
0.10% mas fr | 69.00 | 1.35 | |||||||
insulating NP (metal oxide) | TO | - | - | 0.00 g/L | 57.00 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [107] | |
0.05 g/L | 81.70 | 1.43 | |||||||
semiconducting | TO | - | - | 0.00 g/L | 57.00 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [107] | |
0.05 g/L | 65.10 | 1.14 | |||||||
conductive | TO | - | - | 0.00 g/L | 57.00 | 1.00 | IEC 60156 | [107] | |
0.05 g/L | 70.30 | 1.23 | |||||||
conductive | MO | - | 15/5X 10–50 m | 0.000 vol% | 25.00 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [102] | |
0.005 vol% | 7.00 | 0.28 | |||||||
0.010 vol% | 6.00 | 0.24 | |||||||
0.050 vol% | 1.25 | 0.05 | |||||||
nanodiamond | MO | - | 6 | 0.000 vol% | 25.00 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [102] | |
0.005 vol% | 14.70 | 0.59 | |||||||
0.010 vol% | 9.80 | 0.39 | |||||||
0.050 vol% | 6.00 | 0.24 | |||||||
AlN | MO | - | 6 | 0.00 vol% | 88.00 | 1.00 | ASTM D1816 | [108] | |
oleic acid oil | 92.00 | 1.05 | |||||||
0.079 vol% | 126.00 | 1.43 | |||||||
0.127 vol% | 131.00 | 1.49 | |||||||
0.159 vol% | 131.00 | 1.49 |
NP | BF | Surfactant | Size (nm) | Concentrations | PL BDV | PL BDV/PL BDV | NL BDV | NL BDV/NL BDV | Time + | Time − | Stream + | Stream − | Comments | Standard | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FeO | MO | Yes | 5–20 | 0 | 98.77 | 1 | −156.56 | 1 | 1.77 | 1.77 | IEC 60897 | [110] | |||
X | 112.53 | 1.139 | −127.9 | 0.82 | 0.97 | 1.01 | |||||||||
FeO | VO | OA | 30 | 0 | 73.9 | 1 | 83.8 | 1 | 9.9 | 11.1 | IEC 60897 | [111] | |||
X | 101.5 | 1.373 | 93.7 | 1.12 | 12 | 12.7 | |||||||||
FeO | VO | OA | 30 | 0.000% wr | 73.9 | 1 | 83.8 | 1 | 9.9 | 11.1 | IEC 60897 | [66] | |||
0.004% wr | 101.5 | 1.373 | 93.7 | 1.12 | 12 | 12.7 | |||||||||
FeO | TO | - | - | 0 | 86 | 1 | 170 | 1 | 12 | 27 | 2.12 | 0.94 | [116] | ||
X | 157 | 1.826 | 154 | 0.91 | 26 | 15 | 0.98 | 1.69 | |||||||
FeO | MO | OA | 23.2 | 0.0 vol% | 151.1 | 1 | [112] | ||||||||
0.2 vol% | 159.4 | 1.05 | |||||||||||||
0.3 vol% | 175.4 | 1.16 | |||||||||||||
0.6 vol% | 134.6 | 0.89 | |||||||||||||
FeO | TO | - | - | 0 g/L | 99.1 | 1 | 306 | [113] | |||||||
0.3 g/L | 110.2 | 1.112 | 188 | ||||||||||||
FeO | MO | OA | - | 0% w/v | 79.24 | 1 | 124.79 | 1 | 12.87 | 1.94 | IEC 60897 | [69] * | |||
5% w/v | 83.56 | 1.05 | 122.7 | 0.98 | 14.82 | 1.68 | |||||||||
10% w/v | 84.08 | 1.06 | 119.71 | 0.96 | 18.32 | 1.36 | |||||||||
20% w/v | 93.47 | 1.18 | 115.57 | 0.93 | 21.19 | 1.17 | |||||||||
40% w/v | 107.47 | 1.37 | 106.19 | 0.85 | 25.33 | 0.98 | |||||||||
60% w/v | 102.36 | 1.3 | 92.14 | 0.74 | 25.08 | 0.99 | |||||||||
80% w/v | 88.07 | 1.11 | 80.3 | 0.64 | 21.98 | 1.13 | |||||||||
FeO | TO | - | - | 0 | 79.38 | 1 | 124.75 | 1.00 | 12.87 | 14.26 | 1.94 | 1.05 | IEC 60897 | [70] | |
X | 108.5 | 1.367 | 106.3 | 0.85 | 25.33 | 11.03 | 0.98 | 1.36 | |||||||
FeO | MO | OA | 0% w/v | 1 | 12.87 | 1.94 | IEC 60897 | [115] | |||||||
5% w/v | 1.054 | 14.82 | 1.68 | ||||||||||||
10% w/v | 1.062 | 18.32 | 1.36 | ||||||||||||
20% w/v | 1.184 | 21.19 | 1.17 | ||||||||||||
40% w/v | 1.366 | 25.33 | 0.98 | ||||||||||||
60% w/v | 1.3 | 25.08 | 0.99 | ||||||||||||
0 | 0% w/v | 79.36 | 124.78 | ||||||||||||
10 | 40% w/v | 88.03 | 97.89 | ||||||||||||
20 | 40% w/v | 108.09 | 83.56 | ||||||||||||
40 | 40% w/v | 87.8 | 114.47 | ||||||||||||
20 | gap (mm) | ||||||||||||||
- | 5 | 67.82 | 85.24 | Concentration 40% | |||||||||||
10 | 99.5 | 102.54 | |||||||||||||
15 | 127.27 | 106.55 | |||||||||||||
20 | 157.45 | 132.07 | |||||||||||||
30 | 175.59 | 151.61 | |||||||||||||
40 | 218.61 | 172.67 | |||||||||||||
0 | gap (mm) | ||||||||||||||
5 | 62.22 | 89.22 | Concentration 0% | ||||||||||||
10 | 93.16 | 80.62 | |||||||||||||
15 | 114.93 | 90.44 | |||||||||||||
20 | 117.78 | 111.91 | |||||||||||||
30 | 132.84 | 131.66 | |||||||||||||
40 | 162.96 | 156.62 | |||||||||||||
FeO | NE | - | - | 0 | 73.9 | 1 | 83.8 | 1 | [117] | ||||||
X | 101.5 | 1.373 | 93.7 | 1.12 | |||||||||||
TiO-r | MO | no | <20 | 0.003 g/L | 79.7 | 1 | 14 | [79] | |||||||
0.006 g/L | 86.4 | 1.084 | 15.5 | ||||||||||||
0.01 g/L | 85.8 | 1.077 | 16 | ||||||||||||
0.03 g/L | 89.4 | 1.122 | 15.5 | ||||||||||||
0.05 g/L | 93 | 1.167 | 16 | ||||||||||||
TiO | TO | - | <20 | 0 | 77.6 | 1 | 15.2 | ASTM D3300 | [80] | ||||||
X | 95.9 | 1.236 | 23.3 | ||||||||||||
TiO | MO | - | 20 | 0 | 70.25 | 1 | 14.27 | [82] | |||||||
X | 103.33 | 1.471 | 25.11 | ||||||||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0 vol% | 77.6 | 1 | 15.2 | ASTM D3300 | [75] | ||||||
0.075 vol% | 95.9 | 1.24 | 23.3 | ||||||||||||
time (day) | |||||||||||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0 | 77.64 | 1 | pure oil | IEC 60897 | [88] | ||||||
6 | 76.41 | 0.98 | |||||||||||||
12 | 69.75 | 0.90 | |||||||||||||
18 | 72.57 | 0.93 | |||||||||||||
24 | 69.52 | 0.90 | |||||||||||||
30 | 69.56 | 0.90 | |||||||||||||
36 | 69.33 | 0.89 | |||||||||||||
0 | 96.2 | 1.00 | nanofluid | ||||||||||||
6 | 102.78 | 1.07 | |||||||||||||
12 | 96.3 | 1.00 | |||||||||||||
18 | 73.29 | 0.76 | |||||||||||||
24 | 70.89 | 0.74 | |||||||||||||
30 | 70.75 | 0.74 | |||||||||||||
36 | 70.82 | 0.74 | |||||||||||||
TiO | MO | - | <20 | 0 | 1 | fresh | IEC 60897 | [76] | |||||||
X | 1.23 | ||||||||||||||
0 | 1 | after 6 days | |||||||||||||
X | 1.47 | ||||||||||||||
TiO | TO | - | <100 | 0.000 wt% | 34.13 | 1.000 | IS 11697:1986 | [91] | |||||||
0.005 wt% | 40.70 | 1.192 | |||||||||||||
0.010 wt% | 38.90 | 1.140 | |||||||||||||
0.050 wt% | 37.30 | 1.093 | |||||||||||||
SiO | MO | yes | 5–20 | 0.00 vol% | 98.77 | 1 | −156.56 | 1 | 1.77 | 1.77 | IEC 60897 | [110] | |||
0.04 vol% | 90.11 | 0.91 | −156.42 | 0.99 | 1.85 | 1.38 | |||||||||
SiO | TO | - | - | 0 | 86 | 1 | 170 | 1 | 12 | 27 | 2.12 | 0.94 | [116] | ||
X | 156 | 1.814 | 163 | 0.96 | 17 | 26 | 1.44 | 2.87 | |||||||
SiO | MO | OA | 20 | 0 vol% | 81.01 | 1 | 135.4 | 1 | 12.95 | 16.3 | 1.93 | 1.53 | IEC 60897 | [99] | |
20 vol% | 90.21 | 1.11 | 126.2 | 0.93 | 18.01 | 12.79 | 1.38 | 1.95 | |||||||
AlO | MO | yes | 5–20 | 0 vol% | 98.77 | 1 | −156.56 | 1 | 1.77 | 1.77 | IEC 60897 | [110] | |||
0.1425 vol% | 87.3 | 0.88 | 136.16 | −0.87 | 2.01 | 1.45 | |||||||||
ZnO | MO | yes | 5–20 | 0 vol% | 98.77 | 1 | −156.56 | 1 | 1.77 | 1.77 | IEC 60897 | [110] | |||
0.0475 vol% | 95.46 | 0.97 | −102.67 | 0.65 | 1.05 | 1.31 | |||||||||
semiconductive | MO | - | <20 | 0 | 70 | 1 | ASTM D3300 | [103] | |||||||
Low | 86 | 1.229 | |||||||||||||
Medium | 87 | 1.243 | |||||||||||||
High | 94 | 1.343 | |||||||||||||
FeO | MO U60 | - | - | 0 | 86 | 1 | 170 | 1 | 12 | 27 | gap 2.5 mm | ASTM D3300 | [73] | ||
MO N10x | 0 | 88 | 1.023 | 177 | 1 | 16 | 23 | ||||||||
MO U60 | X | 157 | 1.826 | 154 | 0.91 | 26 | 15 | ||||||||
MO N10x | X | 156 | 1.814 | 173 | 0.98 | 25 | 17 | ||||||||
MO U60 | 0 | 225 | 2.616 | 340 | 2 | 25 | 28 | gap 55 mm | |||||||
MO U60 | X | 390 | 4.535 | 321 | 1.89 | 46 | 32 | ||||||||
ZrO | - | - | 50 | 0 wt% | 34.13 | 1.000 | Indian Standard (IS) | IS11697:1986 | [91] | ||||||
0.005 wt% | 39.60 | 1.160 | |||||||||||||
0.010 wt% | 38.59 | 1.131 | |||||||||||||
0.050 wt% | 36.61 | 1.073 | |||||||||||||
Insulation (metal oxide) | MO | - | 70 | 0% mass fr | 72.5 | 1 | IEC 60897 | [107] | |||||||
0.05% mass fr | 77.5 | 1.07 | |||||||||||||
Semiconductive | TO | - | - | 0 g/L | 72.5 | 1 | IEC 60897 | [107] | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 78.3 | 1.08 | |||||||||||||
Conductive | TO | - | - | 0 g/L | 72.5 | 1 | IEC 60897 | [107] | |||||||
0.05 g/L | 73.3 | 1.01 | |||||||||||||
AlN | TO | OA | - | 0 vol% | 162 | 1 | [108] | ||||||||
OA | 154 | 0.95 | |||||||||||||
0.079 vol% | 155 | 0.96 | |||||||||||||
0.127 vol% | 170 | 1.05 | |||||||||||||
0.159 vol% | 166 | 1.03 |
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Fal, J.; Mahian, O.; Żyła, G. Nanofluids in the Service of High Voltage Transformers: Breakdown Properties of Transformer Oils with Nanoparticles, a Review. Energies 2018, 11, 2942. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112942
Fal J, Mahian O, Żyła G. Nanofluids in the Service of High Voltage Transformers: Breakdown Properties of Transformer Oils with Nanoparticles, a Review. Energies. 2018; 11(11):2942. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112942
Chicago/Turabian StyleFal, Jacek, Omid Mahian, and Gaweł Żyła. 2018. "Nanofluids in the Service of High Voltage Transformers: Breakdown Properties of Transformer Oils with Nanoparticles, a Review" Energies 11, no. 11: 2942. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11112942