The Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Older Drivers and Pedestrians—A Review
Abstract
:Introduction
Literature Search
Studies on the Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Drivers and Pedestrians
Lane Changing
Managing an Intersection
Road Perception
Risk Perception
Pedestrians’ Gaze Behavior
Lack of Studies Using a Vision-in-Action Paradigm
Scarcity of Data on Gaze Behavior and Elderly Pedestrians
Lack of Intervention Studies
Lack of Studies on Emergency Situations
Implications for Research and Practice
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Participants | Method and Tasks | Measures and Technology | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bao & Boyle (2007) | MA: 35-55 (n=10) O: 65-80 (n=10) 5 females and 5 males in each group | Driving through two rural median-divided highway intersections: high crash rate or low crash rate Three driving maneuvers: left turn and right turn (from rural to expressway), and straight across the intersection Cameras to examine face views | Number of eye glances to left and right Search duration (time between starting point to 34 meters before stop sign) No use of eye-tracking technology. Coding visual search from video of participants' face and head movements | Left and right eye glances: MA = O. Search duration: Search for opposing traffic: O < MA In moderateand high-volume traffic: Time observing traffic before entering intersection: MA > O |
Bao & Boyle (2009) | Y: 18-25 (n=20) MA: 35-55 (n=20) O: 65-80 (n=20) 10 females and 10 males in each group | Same as in Bau & Boyle's (2007) study | Visual scanning Location Proportion of scanning Randomness of scanning No use of eye-tracking technology | Visual scanning to left and right during intersection negotiation: O < Y, MA O focused more on one traffic stream before right or left turn Glances toward turning directions: O < Y, MA Scanning all areas: MA > Y,O Checking rearview mirror: MA > Y, O |
Bock et al. (2015) | Y: 20-30 (n=17, 8 fe- males) O: 60-80 (n=16, 6 fe- males) | Moving through a threedimensional virtual reality shopping district placed around on a treadmill Responding to change of traffic light from green to red requiring participants to stop. 30 events in a session with a maximum duration of 8 min | Total gaze time Number of glances Mean glance duration Eye tracking with a 30 Hz headmounted system | Mean glance duration at traffic light: O > Y Sum of all glances: O > Y O looked at the traffic light throughout green, amber, and red Y increased inspection of the green light as it went on and the likelihood of a color change increased |
Borowsky et al. (2010) | Y and inexperienced: 1718 (n=21) Y and experienced: 2230 (n=19) O and experienced: 6572 (n=16) | Identifying hazardous driving situations while sitting in front of a computer screen and watching videos from the driver’s perspective | Gaze behavior Road hazard detection Eye tracking with a 50 Hz remote system | Hazard detection: O and experienced, Y and experienced > Y and inexperienced Fixation towards merging road in T intersection: O and experienced, Y and experienced > Y and inexperienced |
Dukic & Broberg (2012) | Y: 25-55 (n=53, 10 females) O: >75 (n=26, 9 females) | Driving through routes with different speed limits and different types of intersections | Neck flexibility Gaze behavior Head rotations Speed of vehicle Eye tracking with a 50 Hz headmounted system. Raw data reviewed for quality | Neck flexibility: Y > O. First gaze to left or right before intersection: Y before O Fixation duration: O > Y Gaze distribution: Looking straight ahead and looking at lines and markings: O > Y Looking at other cars: O < Y |
Geruschat et al. (2003) | Y: mean age = 27.7 (n=3) O: mean age = 72.2 (n=9) | Crossing two types of intersections | Gaze behavior Head position Eye tracking with a head-mounted system. Sampling rate not reported | Fixations' distribution while standing at the curb are similar between Y and O |
Ho et al. (2001) | Y: 18-30 (n=14) O: 54-79 (n=14) | Searching for traffic signs (presence or absence) in day and night digitized scene images with low and high visual clutter Two blocks of 25 trials | Gaze behavior Correct identification of presence or absence of sign Eye tracking with a 30 Hz remote system | Accuracy of sign identification: O < Y (especially in absence trials) Search efficiency: O < Y Search duration: O > Y # of fixations to acquire the sign: O > Y |
Jäger et al. (2015) | Y: 25-37 (n=15) O: 63-86 (n=15) S: various ages (n=5) | Crossing a two-way road in a simulator | Decision to cross Gaze behavior Missed opportunities Virtual crashes Eye tracking with a head-mounted system Sampling rate not reported | Virtual crashes: Y = O Missed opportunities: Y < O (trend towards sig.) Most difficult scenario: Crashes and missed opportunities: O > Y Gaze behavior: O = Y |
Lavallière et al. (2006) | Y: 20-31 (n=10) O: 65-75 (n=10) | 26.4 km route of urban and rural roads in a driving simulator. Six open road sections, 15 intersections, 5 passing maneuvers | Gaze behavior Eye tracking with a 60 Hz remote system that includes a head tracking device as well | Driving performance: 1 accident by an older driver who failed to look at a stop light # of fixations/sec in complex driving maneuvers: O < Y Horizontal gaze amplitude: O < Y |
Lavallière et al. (2007) | Y: 20-24 (n=12) O: 66-75 (n=11) | Changing lanes driving scenario in a driving simulator that includes 16 events requiring looking at rearview mirror, left side mirror, and left blind spot | Head movements and gazes to ROI: rearview mirror, left side mirror, left blind spot No use of eye-tracking technology. Head movements recorded at 60 Hz. Measured glances to three ROI's | Frequency of visual inspection of rearview mirror and blind spot: O < Y Frequency of inspection ROI when passing a slower vehicle: Y > O |
Lavallière et al. (2011) | Y: 21-31 (n=10, 4 fema- les) O: 65–75 (n=11, males) | Same as in Lavallière's (2007) study | Same as in Lavallière's (2007) study | Frequency of visual inspection of rearview mirror and blind spot: O < Y Frequency of inspection ROI when passing a slower vehicle: Y > O Control of vehicle: O = Y |
Lavallière et al. (2012) | Older drivers (65-85) E: n=10, 4 females C: n=12, 3 females | Driving simulator with video-based feedback Changing lanes in an urban environment On-road driving evaluation before and after three simulator sessions: E: driving simulator with feedback about their previous session C: driving simulator with no feedback | Neck range of motion Frequency of inspections to five ROI: forward, odometer, rearview mirror, external mirrors, blind spots No use of eye-tracking technology. Head movements recorded at 60 Hz | After simulator and feedback training: Inspection frequency of blind spot increased in E (by 100%) but not C group |
Maltz & Shinar (1999) | Y: 20-30 (n=5) O: 62-80 (n=5) | Six digitized images of traffic scenes In two images participants were required to find the numbers 1-14 which were scattered randomly In four images, participants were required to look at important information for safe driving | Search times Fixations In the numerical images Number reached in 10 seconds (from 1-14) Eye tracking with a 60 Hz headmounted system | Search times to extract same information: O > Y Variability in search data: O > Y Lapses in search with increased # of fixations and shorter saccades in older adults |
McPhee et al. (2004) | Y: 17-33 (n=16, 11 females) O: 56-71 (n=16, 7 fe- males) | Searching for traffic signs in digitized images with high or low clutter Single-task or dual-task (memory test) conditions | Errors in identifying signs Number and duration of fixations Memory scores Eye tracking with a remote system. Head secured chin rest and fore- head rest. Sampling rate not reported | Sign identification accuracy: O< Y Especially in high-clutter scenes Time to decide sign is not present: O > Y Fixation duration in dual task: O > Y Memory scores: O < Y |
Min et al. (2013) | Y: 20-30 (n=18) O: >65 (n=21) | Two 10-min driving scenarios in a simulator. Two turn types and 3 intersection types appeared 4 times | Driving behavior Gaze behavior. Eye tracking with a head-mounted system. Sampling rate not reported | Right turn: Scanning forward: O < Y Scanning to right: O > Y Velocity when entering or exiting intersection: O < Y |
Pradhan et al. (2005) | N: 16-17, < 6-months driving experience (n=24) Y: 19-29 (n=24) O: 60-75 (n=24) | Driving through 16 risky scenarios in a driving simulator Four blocks of 4 scenarios | Safe or unsafe behavior Eye movements Eye tracking with a 60 Hz headmounted system | Fixating on the potential risk: O > Y > N In all 16 scenarios: O > N In 14 of 16 scenarios: O > Y |
Reimer et al. (2010) | Y: 20-29 (n=36) MA: 40-49 (n=36) O: 60-69 (n=36) | Actual driving with low, moderate, and high secondary cognitive workloads 30 min warm-up, 2 min single task, four 30sec trials with secondary tasks | Gaze behavior Secondary task performance Driving speed Eye tracking with a 60 Hz remote system | Secondary task performance and driving speed: O < Y, MA Horizontal gaze centralization in all age groups with increasing cognitive workload |
Reimer et al. (2012) | Y: 20-29 (n=36) MA: 40-49 (n=36) O: 60-69 (n=36) | Actual driving while performing a secondary task of delayed digit-recall (3 difficulties) | Gaze behavior Secondary task performance Driving performance Eye tracking with a 60 Hz remote system | Increase gaze concentration with increased secondary task difficulty in all age groups Trend for inverse relationship between gaze concentration and performance scores |
Romoser & Fisher (2009) | Exp 1: Y: 22-55 (n=18) O: 72-87 (n=18) Exp 2: O1: 70-74 (n=18) O2: 75-59 (n=18) O3: 80-89 (n=18) | Exp 1: Ten driving simulator scenarios (8 of them of turning in intersections) with risky elements appearing in the driving scene Exp 2: Three groups: (1) active: 6 sessions of secondary-look training in simulator and in the field with intersection behavior feedback, (2) passive-classroom training, (3) C (notraining) | Exp 1 & 2: Errors made Primary looks (scanning before executing a turn) Secondary looks (scanning while performing a turn). Eye tracking with a 60 Hz headmounted system | Exp 1: Secondary looks: O < Y. Turn too slow: O > Y. Exp 2: Probability of looking at threat during turn increased for active group, but not for passive or control group |
Romoser (2013) | Same as Romoser & Fisher (2009) | A two-year follow-up of Romoser & Fisher's (2009) study | Secondary looks follow-up study. No actual eye tracking performed | Those who participated in active driving learning looked more than 1.5 times as often as their pre-training levels towards areas from which vehicles could appear, even after two years |
Romoser et al. (2013) | Same as Romoser & Fisher (2009) | Following a lead car in three intersection scenarios: (1) turning left across incoming traffic at four-way intersection, (2) turning right from a stop at a T-intersection, (3) going straight through a four-way intersection with two-way stop | Gaze behavior from 8 seconds before to 5 seconds after entering the intersection. Eye tracking with a 60 Hz headmounted system | Major differences between O and Y from 2 seconds before to 1 second after entering the intersection Left turn across traffic: glancing to central region: Y > O Fixating to direction of travel: Y < O Right turn at T-intersection Looking to far left: Y > O Looking to near right (direction of turn): Y < O Straight through intersection: Glancing far right and far left: Y > O Looking to center zone (direction of travel): Y < O |
Scott et al. (2013) | N: mean age 20.6 (n=14) Y: mean age 23.8 (n=14) O: mean age 66.4 (n=14) | Performing a right turn in a driving simulator | Gaze transitions between 7 ROI Initial scanning phase (first 10 seconds of scenario) Decision phase – from 5 seconds before initiating turn Eye tracking with a head-mounted system. Sampling rate not reported | Scanning phase: Y – Distributed gaze more evenly across ROI compared to N and O Decision phase: Preview gazes towards the road far ahead: O < N, Y |
Sun et al. (2016) | Drivers between the ages of 60-80 (n=30) | 16 driving scenarios including right and left turns, roundabouts, and straight road driving | Five fixation parameters Vehicle trajectory Eye tracking with a 60 Hz headmounted system | Fixation frequency: turn and roundabouts > straight road Lower capacity of attention was related to less frequent fixations at roundabouts |
Wikman & Summala (2005) | Y: 20-24 (n=10) MA: 26-44 (n=9) O: 57-73 (n=11) | Driving 350 km while performing two secondary tasks: (1) pushing buttons in ascending order from 1 to 8 on a digit display located in the middle console, (2) reading the numbers from top left to bottom right | Gaze transitions from inside the car to out the window Cognitive tests Driving performance No use of eye-tracking technology. Recording glances based on a camera videotaping the face of the participant | During pushing the keys task: Time and distance car travelled when looking off the road: O > Y, MA Glances of <2 sec off the road: O > Y, MA (large variance in O group) Lateral displacement of car: O > Y, MA |
Zito et al. (2015) | Y: 23-28 (n=18) O: 65-79 (n=18) | Crossing a two-way road in a simulator Scenarios with vehicles travelling at 30 or 50 km/h Choosing whether the gap between cars is long enough to cross the street | Safe crosses Virtual crashes missed opportunities Gaze fixations to three ROI Head movements Eye tracking with a head-mounted system Sampling rate not reported | Fixations to ground: O>Y Fixations to other side of street to cross: O<Y Fixations to right side: O<Y # of virtual crashes: O>Y # of missed opportunities: O<Y |
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Ziv, G.; Lidor, R. The Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Older Drivers and Pedestrians—A Review. J. Eye Mov. Res. 2016, 9, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.7.6
Ziv G, Lidor R. The Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Older Drivers and Pedestrians—A Review. Journal of Eye Movement Research. 2016; 9(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.7.6
Chicago/Turabian StyleZiv, Gal, and Ronnie Lidor. 2016. "The Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Older Drivers and Pedestrians—A Review" Journal of Eye Movement Research 9, no. 7: 1-13. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.7.6
APA StyleZiv, G., & Lidor, R. (2016). The Effect of Age on Gaze Behavior in Older Drivers and Pedestrians—A Review. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 9(7), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.7.6