The Relationship between Nightmare Experience and Athletes’ Personality Traits and Anxiety
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants and Procedures
2.2. Measures
- A.
- Nightmare Experience Questionnaire (NEQ)
- B.
- Self-Rating Anxiety Scale (SAS)
- C.
- The Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja Personality Questionnaire, Shortened Form (ZKA-PQ/SF)
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Nightmare Experiences in High-Level Athletes
3.2. Anxiety Levels and Personality Traits of Participants
3.3. Correlations between NEQ, SAS, and ZKA-PQ/SF Scores
3.4. Regression Analysis Results of NEQ by SAS and ZKA/PQ-SF Scales
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Revonsuo, A. The reinterpretation of dreams: An evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Behav. Brain Sci. 2000, 23, 877–901. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Robert, G.; Zadra, A. Thematic and content analysis of idiopathic nightmares and bad dreams. Sleep 2014, 37, 409–417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Nielsen, T.; Levin, R. Nightmares: A new neurocognitive model. Sleep Med. Rev. 2007, 11, 295–310. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blagrove, M.; Farmer, L.; Williams, E. The relationship of nightmare frequency and nightmare distress to well-being. J. Sleep Res. 2004, 13, 129–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hochard, K.D.; Ashcroft, S.; Carroll, J.; Heym, N.; Townsend, E. Exploring Thematic Nightmare Content and Associated Self-Harm Risk. Suicide Life Threat. Behav. 2019, 49, 64–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Sandman, N.; Valli, K.; Kronholm, E.; Revonsuo, A.; Laatikainen, T.; Paunio, T. Nightmares: Risk factors among the Finnish general adult population. Sleep 2015, 38, 507–514. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pesant, N.; Zadra, A. Dream content and psychological well-being: A longitudinal study of the continuity hypothesis. J. Clin. Psychol. 2006, 62, 111–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hochard, K.D.; Heym, N.; Townsend, E. The behavioral effects of frequent nightmares on objective stress tolerance. Dreaming 2016, 26, 42–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shen, C.; Wang, J.; Ma, G.; Zhu, Q.; He, H.; Ding, Q.; Fan, H.; Lu, Y.; Wang, W. Waking-hour cerebral activations in nightmare disorder: A resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2016, 70, 573–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Li, S.X.; Zhang, B.; Li, A.M.; Wing, Y.K. Prevalence and Correlates of Frequent Nightmares: A Community-Based 2-Phase Study. Sleep 2010, 33, 774–780. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.; Xu, J.; Wang, M.; Shao, X.; Wang, W. Prevalence and Detailed Experience of Nightmare and Nightmare Disorder in Chinese University Students. SAGE Open 2021, 11, 21582440211014193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levin, R. Sleep and dreaming characteristics of frequent nightmare subjects in a university population. Dreaming 1994, 4, 127–137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Levin, R.; Hurvich, M.S. Nightmares and annihilation anxiety. Psychoanal. Psychol. 1995, 12, 247–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mack, J.E. Nightmares & Human Conflict; Houghton Mifflin: Boston, MA, USA, 1974. [Google Scholar]
- Cosh, S.; Tully, P.J. Stressors, Coping, and Support Mechanisms for Student Athletes Combining Elite Sport and Tertiary Education: Implications for Practice. Sport Psychol. 2015, 29, 120–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nixdorf, I.; Frank, R.; Beckmann, J. An Explorative Study on Major Stressors and Its Connection to Depression and Chronic Stress among German Elite Athletes. Adv. Phys. Educ. 2015, 5, 255–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Rusdiyanto, R.M.; Subarjah, H.; Ma’mun, A.; Mulyana, M. Survey Study of Psychological Conditions of Martial Arts Athletes. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Sport Science, Health, and Physical Education (ICSSHPE 2018), Bandung, Indonesia, 25–26 September 2018; pp. 330–332. [Google Scholar]
- Proctor, S.L.; Boan-Lenzo, C. Prevalence of Depressive Symptoms in Male Intercollegiate Student-Athletes and Nonathletes. J. Clin. Sport Psychol. 2010, 4, 204–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tahtinen, R.E.; Kristjansdottir, H. The Influence of Anxiety and Depression Symptoms on Help-Seeking Intentions in Individual Sport Athletes and Non-Athletes: The Role of Gender and Athlete Status. J. Clin. Sport Psychol. 2019, 13, 134–151. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Demirel, H. Have University Sport Students Higher Scores Depression, Anxiety and Psychological Stress? Int. J. Environ. Sci. Educ. 2016, 11, 9422–9425. [Google Scholar]
- Gorczynski, P.F.; Coyle, M.; Gibson, K. Depressive symptoms in high-performance athletes and non-athletes: A comparative meta-analysis. Br. J. Sports Med. 2017, 51, 1348–1354. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rice, S.M.; Purcell, R.; de Silva, S.; Mawren, D.; McGorry, P.D.; Parker, A.G. The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review. Sports Med. 2016, 46, 1333–1353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Nguyen, T.T.; Madrid, S.; Marquez, H.; Hicks, R.A. Nightmare Frequency, Nightmare Distress, and Anxiety. Percept. Mot. Ski. 2002, 95, 219–225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Javadi, S.H.S. Evaluation of depression and anxiety, and their relationship with insomnia, nightmare and demographic variables in medical students. Eur. Psychiatry 2017, 41, s853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fisher, C.; Byrne, J.; Edwards, A.; Kahn, E. A Psychophysiological Study of Nightmares. J. Am. Psychoanal. Assoc. 1970, 18, 747–782. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spoormaker, V.I.; Schredl, M.; van den Bout, J. Nightmares: From anxiety symptom to sleep disorder. Sleep Med. Rev. 2006, 10, 19–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bender, A.M.; Lawson, D.; Werthner, P.; Samuels, C.H. The Clinical Validation of the Athlete Sleep Screening Questionnaire: An Instrument to Identify Athletes that Need Further Sleep Assessment. Sports Med. Open 2018, 4, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Turner, R.W.; Vissa, K.; Hall, C.; Poling, K.; Athey, A.; Alfonso-Miller, P.; Gehrels, J.-A.; Grandner, M.A. Sleep problems are associated with academic performance in a national sample of collegiate athletes. J. Am. Coll. Health 2021, 69, 74–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Erlacher, D.; Ehrlenspiel, F.; Schredl, M. Frequency of Nightmares and Gender Significantly Predict Distressing Dreams of German Athletes before Competitions or Games. J. Psychol. 2011, 145, 331–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Augedal, A.W.; Hansen, K.S.; Kronhaug, C.R.; Harvey, A.G.; Pallesen, S. Randomized controlled trials of psychological and pharmacological treatments for nightmares: A meta-analysis. Sleep Med. Rev. 2013, 17, 143–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nadorff, M.R.; Lambdin, K.K.; Germain, A. Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for nightmare disorder. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 2014, 26, 225–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Caspi, A.; Roberts, B.W.; Shiner, R.L. Personality Development: Stability and Change. Ann. Rev. Psychol. 2004, 56, 453–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Fan, H.; Wang, C.; Shao, X.; Jia, Y.; Aluja, A.; Wang, W. Short form of the Zuckerman—Kuhlman—Aluja Personality Questionnaire: Its trait and facet relationships with personality disorder functioning styles in Chinese general and clinical samples. Psychiatry Res. 2019, 271, 438–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jorm, A.F.; Christensen, H.; Henderson, A.S.; Jacomb, P.A.; Korten, A.E.; Rodgers, B. Predicting anxiety and depression from personality: Is there a synergistic effect of neuroticism and extraversion? J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2000, 109, 145–149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Prince, E.J.; Siegel, D.J.; Carroll, C.P.; Sher, K.J.; Bienvenu, O.J. A longitudinal study of personality traits, anxiety, and depressive disorders in young adults. Anxiety Stress Coping 2021, 34, 299–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schredl, M.; Goeritz, A.S. Nightmare frequency and nightmare distress: Socio-demographic and personality factors. Sleep Sci. 2019, 12, 178–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Schredl, M. Nightmare Distress, Beliefs about Nightmares, and Personality. Imagin. Cogn. Personal. 2021, 40, 177–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Köthe, M.; Pietrowsky, R. Behavioral Effects of Nightmares and Their Correlations to Personality Patterns. Dreaming 2001, 11, 43–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Randler, C.; Schredl, M.; Göritz, A.S. Chronotype, Sleep Behavior, and the Big Five Personality Factors. SAGE Open 2017, 7, 2158244017728321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Morgan, W.P.; Costill, D.L. Selected Psychological Characteristics and Health Behaviors of Aging Marathon Runners: A Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Sports Med. 1996, 17, 305–312. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shariati, M.; Bakhtiari, S. Comparison of Personality Characteristics Athlete and Non-Athlete Student, Islamic Azad University of Ahvaz. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 2011, 30, 2312–2315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Malinauskas, R.; Dumciene, A.; Mamkus, G.; Venckunas, T. Personality Traits and Exercise Capacity in Male Athletes and Non-Athletes. Percept. Mot. Ski. 2014, 118, 145–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Filho, M.G.B.; Ribeiro, L.C.S.; García, F.G. Comparison of personality characteristics between high-level Brazilian athletes and non-athletes. Rev. Bras. Med. Esporte 2005, 11, 115–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, W.; Xu, Y.; Zhu, M.; Tang, Y.; Huang, S.; Mao, H.; Wang, W. Development of a structure-validated Nightmare Experience Questionnaire in Chinese university students. Afr. J. Psychiatry 2014, 17, 1000147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Aluja, A.; Lucas, I.; Blanch, A.; García, O.; García, L.F. The Zuckerman-Kuhlman-Aluja Personality Questionnaire shortened form (ZKA-PQ/SF). Personal. Individ. Differ. 2018, 134, 174–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Mello, M.T.; Esteves, A.M.; Comparoni, A.; Benedito-Silva, A.A.; Tufik, S. Evaluation of sleep patterns and sleep-related complaints, chronotype, and time zone adaptation of Brazilian athletes participant in the Sydney 2000 paralympic games. Rev. Bras. Med. Esporte 2002, 8, 122–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Litwic-Kaminska, K.; Kotysko, M. Sleep quality of student athletes and non-athletes—The role of chronotype, stress and life satisfaction. Sleep Sci. 2020, 13, 249–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Knowles, C.; Shannon, S.; Prentice, G.; Breslin, G. Comparing Mental Health of Athletes and Non-athletes as They Emerge From a COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown. Front. Sports Act. Living 2021, 3, 612532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bennie, A.; O’Connor, D. Athletic transition: An investigation of elite track and field participation in the post-high school years. Change 2006, 9, 59–68. [Google Scholar]
- Martin, M. Comparing Stress Levels and Coping Styles in College Athletes and Non-Athletes; University of Tennessee at Chattanooga: Chattanooga, TN, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Jennings, R.; Henderson, C.; Erla, M.; Abraham, S.; Gillum, D. Stress coping behaviors of faith–based college non-student athletes vs. student-athletes. Coll. Stud. J. 2018, 52, 245–257. [Google Scholar]
- Watson, J.C. College student-athletes’ attitudes toward help-seeking behavior and expectations of counseling services. J. Coll. Stud. Dev. 2005, 46, 442–449. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pačesová, P.; Šmela, P. Aggression and anxiety trait level of young male contact and noncontact athletes. Acta Gymnica 2020, 50, 9–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Kusnierz, C.; Cynarski, W.J.; Litwiniuk, A. Comparison of aggressiveness levels in combat sports and martial arts male athletes to non-practising peers. Arch. Budo 2014, 10, 253–260. [Google Scholar]
- Sosnowska, J.; de Fruyt, F.; Hofmans, J. Relating Neuroticism to Emotional Exhaustion: A Dynamic Approach to Personality. Front. Psychol. 2019, 10, 2264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mastroleo, N.R.; Scaglione, N.; Mallett, K.A.; Turrisi, R. Can Personality Account for Differences in Drinking between College Athletes and Non-Athletes? Explaining the Role of Sensation Seeking, Risk-Taking, and Impulsivity. J. Drug Educ. 2013, 43, 81–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed][Green Version]
- Schredl, M.; Schramm, F.; Valli, K.; Mueller, E.M.; Sandman, N. Nightmare Distress Questionnaire: Associated factors. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2021, 17, 61–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rapaport, M.H.; Clary, C.; Fayyad, R.; Endicott, J. Quality-of-Life Impairment in Depressive and Anxiety Disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2005, 162, 1171–1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fantini, M.L.; Corona, A.; Clerici, S.; Ferini-Strambi, L. Aggressive dream content without daytime aggressiveness in REM sleep behavior disorder. Neurology 2005, 65, 1010–1015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Suzuki, C.; Matsuda, E. A Study of Individual differences on Dream Recall: Influence of stressful life events and big five personality traits on dream recall frequency. Stress Sci. Res. 2012, 27, 71–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Lahey, B.B. Public health significance of neuroticism. Am. Psychol. 2009, 64, 241–256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef][Green Version]
- Olatunji, B.O.; Cisler, J.M.; Tolin, D.F. Quality of life in the anxiety disorders: A meta-analytic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2007, 27, 572–581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gao, T.; Xiang, Y.-T.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, Z.; Mei, S. Neuroticism and quality of life: Multiple mediating effects of smartphone addiction and depression. Psychiatry Res. 2017, 258, 457–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tull, M.T.; Jakupcak, M.; McFadden, M.E.; Roemer, L. The Role of Negative Affect Intensity and the Fear of Emotions in Posttraumatic Stress Symptom Severity Among Victims of Childhood Interpersonal Violence. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 2007, 195, 580–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Solomon, Z.; Ginzburg, K.; Neria, Y.; Ohry, A. Coping with war captivity: The role of sensation seeking. Eur. J. Personal. 1995, 9, 57–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosenbloom, T. Sensation seeking and risk taking in mortality salience. Personal. Individ. Differ. 2003, 35, 1809–1819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, C.; Shao, X.; Jia, Y.; Shen, C.; Wang, W. Nightmare experience and family relationships in healthy volunteers and nightmare disorder patients. BMC Psychiatry 2019, 19, 297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Variables | Category | No. (%) | No. Experiencing Nightmares (%) | χ2 | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 96 (51.34%) | 41 (42.71%) | 1.154 | 0.283 |
Female | 91 (48.66%) | 46 (50.55%) | |||
Type of sport | Team sports | 44 (23.53%) | 19 (43.18%) | 0.258 | 0.611 |
Individual sports | 143 (76.47%) | 68 (47.55%) | |||
Skill level | Second level | 85 (45.45%) | 40 (47.06%) | 0.946 | 0.623 |
First level | 78 (41.71%) | 38 (48.72%) | |||
Elite level | 24 (12.83%) | 9 (37.50%) | |||
Training years | ≤9 | 97 (51.87%) | 46 (47.42%) | 0.065 | 0.798 |
>9 | 90 (48.13%) | 41 (45.55%) | |||
Total | 187 (100%) | 87 (46.52%) |
Dimension | Athlete Nightmare Group (n = 87) | Non-Athlete Nightmare Group (n = 90) | t | p | Cohen’s d | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||
NEQ | |||||||
Physical Effect | 6.99 ± 2.53 | 6.60 ± 2.47 | 1.03 | 0.30 | 0.16 | [−0.35, 1.13] | |
Negative Emotion | 17.25 ± 5.03 | 16.26 ± 4.94 | 1.33 | 0.19 | 0.20 | [−0.48, 2.48] | |
Meaning Interpretation | 16.16 ± 4.02 | 16.01 ± 3.99 | 0.25 | 0.80 | 0.04 | [−1.04, 1.34] | |
Horrible Stimulation | 13.92 ± 4.35 | 14.26 ± 4.25 | −0.52 | 0.60 | 0.08 | [−1.61, 0.94] | |
Total score | 54.32 ± 12.22 | 53.12 ± 11.16 | 0.68 | 0.50 | 0.10 | [−2.27, 4.67] | |
Nightmare frequency (time/year) | 11.89 ± 9.39 | 13.27 ± 12.79 | −0.82 | 0.42 | 0.12 | [−4.72, 1.96] |
Scales | Athlete Nightmare Group (n = 87) | Athlete Non-Nightmare Group (n = 100) | Nonathlete Nightmare Group (n = 90) | F | p | η2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SAS | 42.59 ± 9.10 | 40.40 ± 8.73 | 39.96 ± 7.29 * | 2.49 | 0.09 | 0.02 |
ZKA-PQ/SF | ||||||
AG | 41.49 ± 11.71 | 40.08 ± 10.62 | 46.86 ± 10.25 ** | 10.04 | <0.001 | 0.07 |
AC | 48.13 ± 9.33 | 46.78 ± 11.63 | 47.52 ± 7.32 | 0.46 | 0.64 | 0.003 |
EX | 54.74 ± 11.33 | 53.44 ± 10.86 | 55.78 ± 8.98 | 1.20 | 0.30 | 0.01 |
NE | 42.71 ± 12.51 | 39.30 ± 11.06 * | 46.96 ± 8.84 * | 11.71 | <0.001 | 0.08 |
SS | 47.52 ± 9.53 | 45.61 ± 8.99 | 51.28 ± 8.76 ** | 9.42 | <0.001 | 0.06 |
SAS | AG | AC | EX | NE | SS | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Athlete nightmare group | ||||||
NEQ | ||||||
Physical Effect | 0.60 ** | 0.40 ** | 0.03 | −0.45 ** | 0.53 ** | −0.12 |
Negative Emotion | 0.32 ** | 0.34 ** | 0.06 | −0.31 ** | 0.47 ** | 0.12 |
Meaning Interpretation | 0.29 ** | 0.22 * | 0.12 | −0.11 | 0.46 ** | 0.18 |
Horrible Stimulation | 0.18 | 0.20 | 0.19 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.32 ** |
NEQ Total Score | 0.41 ** | 0.37 ** | 0.14 | −0.24 * | 0.51 ** | 0.20 |
Nightmare Frequency (time/year) | 0.33 ** | 0.15 | 0.01 | −0.21 | 0.13 | 0.07 |
Non-athlete nightmare group | ||||||
NEQ | ||||||
Physical Effect | 0.51 ** | −0.05 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.26 * | −0.04 |
Negative Emotion | 0.07 | 0.24 * | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.30 ** | 0.16 |
Meaning Interpretation | 0.13 | 0.17 | 0.26 * | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.28 ** |
Horrible Stimulation | 0.11 | 0.27 * | 0.25 * | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.31 ** |
NEQ Total Score | 0.23 * | 0.26 * | 0.21 | 0.09 | 0.24 * | 0.28 ** |
Nightmare Frequency (time/year) | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.07 |
Athlete Nightmare Group | Non-Athlete Nightmare Group | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted R2 | β (B, Standard Error) Predictors | Adjusted R2 | β (B, Standard Error) Predictors | |
NEQ | ||||
Physical Effect | 0.41 | 0.45 (0.13, 0.03) SAS ** | 0.29 | 0.58 (0.20, 0.03) SAS ** |
0.30 (0.06, 0.020) Neuroticism ** | −0.23 (−0.05, 0.02) Aggressiveness * | |||
Negative Emotion | 0.21 | 0.47 (0.19, 0.04) Neuroticism ** | 0.08 | 0.30 (0.17, 0.06) Neuroticism ** |
Meaning Interpretation | 0.24 | 0.48 (0.15, 0.03) Neuroticism ** | 0.07 | 0.28 (0.13, 0.05) Sensation Seeking ** |
0.22 (0.09, 0.04) Sensation Seeking * | ||||
Horrible Stimulation | 0.15 | 0.38 (0.17, 0.05) Sensation Seeking ** | 0.09 | 0.31 (0.15, 0.05) Sensation Seeking ** |
0.26 (0.12, 0.05) SAS * | ||||
Total Score | 0.35 | 0.40 (0.39, 0.10) Neuroticism ** | 0.12 | 0.28 (0.36, 0.13) Sensation Seeking ** |
0.29 (0.37, 0.11) Sensation Seeking ** | 0.24 (0.30, 0.13) Neuroticism * | |||
0.28 (0.37, 0.14) SAS ** | ||||
Nightmare Frequency (time/year) | 0.10 | 0.33 (0.34, 0.11) SAS ** | — | — — |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Gan, Y.; Wang, R.; Li, J.; Wang, X.; Fan, H. The Relationship between Nightmare Experience and Athletes’ Personality Traits and Anxiety. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12900. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912900
Gan Y, Wang R, Li J, Wang X, Fan H. The Relationship between Nightmare Experience and Athletes’ Personality Traits and Anxiety. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12900. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912900
Chicago/Turabian StyleGan, Youteng, Ruohang Wang, Jiangang Li, Xueyu Wang, and Hongying Fan. 2022. "The Relationship between Nightmare Experience and Athletes’ Personality Traits and Anxiety" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12900. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912900