Adverse Childhood Experiences and COVID-19 Stress on Changes in Mental Health among Young Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
2.2.2. COVID-19 Stressors
2.2.3. Mental Health Outcomes
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Attrition Analysis
3.2. Correlation Analysis
3.3. Mixed Effects Regression Analysis
4. Discussion
Strengths and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Two-Way Mixed Effects Models | Mental Health Outcomes | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Depression Estimate (p-Value) | Anxiety Estimate (p-Value) | Hostility Estimate (p-Value) | Perceived Stress Estimate (p-Value) | |
Emotional | ||||
Loneliness | ||||
Intercept | 2.00 (0.87) | 23.60 (<0.001) | 7.96 (0.01) | 23.51 (<0.001) |
Loneliness | −1.38 (0.49) | −0.71 (0.52) | −1.01 (0.06) | −0.87 (0.46) |
ACEs | 5.39 (<0.001) | 0.59 (0.43) | 0.55 (0.14) | 1.29 (0.11) |
Time | −2.51 (0.30) | −1.10 (0.38) | −0.73 (0.26) | −2.24 (0.10) |
Loneliness ∗ Time | 2.10 (0.01) | 0.65 (0.12) | 0.51 (0.02) | 1.004 (0.03) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.11 (0.04) | 0.19 (0.52) | −0.00 (0.99) | −0.06 (0.84) |
Frustration | ||||
Intercept | 0.62 (0.96) | 25.15 (<0.001) | 9.44 (0.002) | 25.39 (<0.001) |
Frustration | −1.56 (0.43) | −1.37 (0.21) | −1.64 (0.002) | −1.76 (0.13) |
ACEs | 5.76 (<0.001) | 0.75 (0.33) | 0.65 (0.08) | 1.55 (0.06) |
Time | −2.2 (0.34) | −2.33 (0.06) | −1.54 (0.01) | −3.28 (0.01) |
Frustration ∗ Time | 2.07 (0.01) | 1.17 (0.01) | 0.86 (<0.001) | 1.47 (0.001) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.17 (0.03) | 0.14 (0.63) | −0.04 (0.79) | −0.14 (0.66) |
Suspiciousness | ||||
Intercept | −12.99 (0.27) | 22.22 (<0.001) | 5.85 (0.05) | 18.97 (0.003) |
Suspiciousness | 2.34 (0.23) | −1.29 (0.23) | −0.56 (0.29) | −0.43 (0.71) |
ACEs | 5.16 (<0.001) | 0.56 (0.45) | 0.48 (0.20) | 1.21 (0.13) |
Time | 2.04 (0.35) | −1.81 (0.10) | −0.45 (0.43) | −1.75 (0.14) |
Suspiciousness ∗ Time | 0.36 (0.65) | 1.09 (0.01) | 0.47 (0.02) | 0.96 (0.03) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −0.92 (0.10) | 0.22 (0.44) | 0.03 (0.83) | 0.01 (0.99) |
Physical | ||||
Physical Inactivity | ||||
Intercept | −4.83 (0.69) | 21.94 (0.001) | 8.17 (0.01) | 19.6 (0.003) |
Physical Inactivity | 0.86 (0.6) | 0.02 (0.99) | −1.22 (0.01) | 0.12 (0.9) |
ACEs | 5.00 (<0.001) | 0.49 (0.52) | 0.52 (0.16) | 1.26 (0.12) |
Time | 2.42 (0.23) | −0.01 (0.99) | −0.62 (0.24) | 0.28 (0.80) |
Physical Inactivity ∗ Time | 0.06 (0.92) | 0.22 (0.52) | 0.51 (0.004) | 0.07 (0.85) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −0.86 (0.12) | 0.24 (0.4) | 0.02 (0.90) | −0.01 (0.99) |
Poor Diet | ||||
Intercept | −4.27 (0.72) | 23.41 (<0.001) | 7.7 (0.01) | 21.93 (0.001) |
Poor Diet | 0.80 (0.65) | −0.77 (0.43) | −1.33 (0.01) | −1.09 (0.28) |
ACEs | 5.01 (0.001) | 0.59 (0.45) | 0.66 (0.08) | 1.44 (0.08) |
Time | 2.25 (0.23) | −0.48 (0.62) | −0.42 (0.39) | −0.67 (0.52) |
Poor Diet ∗ Time | 0.18 (0.80) | 0.53 (0.15) | 0.53 (0.01) | 0.61 (0.13) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −0.90 (0.11) | 0.18 (0.55) | −0.03 (0.83) | −0.09 (0.78) |
Substance Use | ||||
Alcohol use | ||||
Intercept | −8.50 (0.48) | 19.01 (0.003) | 6.13 (0.04) | 20.64 (0.001) |
Increased Alcohol | 1.42 (0.51) | 0.89 (0.45) | −0.67 (0.25) | −0.83 (0.50) |
ACEs | 5.4 (<0.001) | 0.52 (0.49) | 0.50 (0.18) | 1.32 (0.10) |
Time | 3.45 (0.08) | 1.33 (0.19) | 0.19 (0.72) | −0.20 (0.86) |
Increased Alcohol ∗ Time | −0.36 (0.67) | −0.50 (0.27) | 0.24 (0.30) | 0.33 (0.50) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −0.97 (0.08) | 0.26 (0.38) | 0.03 (0.82) | −0.01 (0.98) |
Increased Drug Use | ||||
Intercept | −8.44 (0.48) | 19.46 (0.002) | 5.95 (0.05) | 16.48 (0.01) |
Increased Drug Use | 1.69 (0.47) | 1.43 (0.27) | −0.22 (0.73) | 0.85 (0.53) |
ACEs | 5.21 (<0.001) | 0.40 (0.61) | 0.44 (0.25) | 1.40 (0.09) |
Time | 2.57 (0.17) | 0.81 (0.42) | 0.17 (0.73) | 0.58 (0.58) |
Increased Drugs ∗ Time | −0.10 (0.92) | −0.30 (0.55) | 0.19 (0.45) | −0.15 (0.78) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −0.84 (0.14) | 0.31 (0.31) | 0.07 (0.66) | 0.00 (0.99) |
Financial | ||||
Decreased Income | ||||
Intercept | 1.55 (0.90) | 20.84 (0.001) | 7.16 (0.02) | 24.83 (<0.001) |
Decreased Income | −2.36 (0.11) | 0.25 (0.76) | −1.05 (0.01) | −2.22 (0.01) |
ACEs | 5.75 (<0.001) | 0.46 (0.56) | 0.61 (0.11) | 1.54 (0.06) |
Time | 0.33 (0.86) | 0.56 (0.57) | −0.27 (0.58) | −1.61 (0.12) |
Decreased Income ∗ Time | 1.21 (0.04) | −0.04 (0.9) | 0.39 (0.01) | 0.89 (0.01) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.12 (0.048) | 0.28 (0.35) | 0.00 (0.99) | −0.09 (0.77) |
Inability to Pay Rent/mortgage | ||||
Intercept | −3.70 (0.76) | 19.61 (0.001) | 6.04 (0.05) | 21.16 (0.001) |
Rent/Mortgage | −1.02 (0.69) | −1.20 (0.38) | −1.35 (0.05) | −2.53 (0.09) |
ACEs | 5.85 (<0.001) | 1.00 (0.18) | 0.64 (0.10) | 1.71 (0.04) |
Time | 1.93 (0.26) | 0.26 (0.77) | −0.07 (0.88) | −0.94 (0.33) |
Rent/Mortgage ∗ Time | 1.12 (0.27) | 0.54 (0.31) | 0.57 (0.04) | 1.27 (0.03) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.29 (0.03) | 0.07 (0.82) | −0.03 (0.84) | −0.21 (0.52) |
Inability to Pay for Food | ||||
Intercept | −0.06 (1.00) | 19.78 (0.001) | 6.15 (0.04) | 22.07 (0.001) |
Food | −3.16 (0.25) | −1.28 (0.38) | −1.91 (0.01) | −2.27 (0.16) |
ACEs | 5.84 (<0.001) | 0.87 (0.24) | 0.76 (0.05) | 1.58 (0.06) |
Time | 0.37 (0.83) | 0.01 (0.99) | −0.23 (0.62) | −0.86 (0.38) |
Food ∗ Time | 2.53 (0.02) | 0.70 (0.21) | 0.78 (0.01) | 1.18 (0.06) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.35 (0.02) | 0.09 (0.76) | −0.07 (0.62) | −0.17 (0.61) |
Relationship | ||||
Arguments | ||||
Intercept | −9.43 (0.43) | 18.3 (0.004) | 6.7 (0.03) | 16.4 (0.01) |
Serious argument | −2.54 (0.21) | −1.45 (0.17) | −1.79 (0.001) | −0.92 (0.44) |
ACEs | 5.69 (<0.001) | 0.88 (0.23) | 0.73 (0.05) | 1.36 (0.10) |
Time | −0.49 (0.78) | −0.74 (0.41) | −0.84 (0.07) | −1.2 (0.24) |
Serious argument ∗ Time | 2.31 (0.004) | 0.98 (0.02) | 0.92 (<0.001) | 1.03 (0.03) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.30 (0.02) | 0.05 (0.85) | −0.09 (0.53) | −0.13 (0.68) |
Physical fights | ||||
Intercept | 1.01 (0.94) | 19.23 (0.01) | 5.44 (0.11) | 20.59 (0.01) |
Physical Fight | −6.72 (0.26) | −0.24 (0.94) | −0.70 (0.67) | −1.82 (0.60) |
ACEs | 5.42 (<0.001) | 0.68 (0.36) | 0.48 (0.20) | 1.33 (0.10) |
Time | 0.10 (0.97) | 1.20 (0.41) | 0.15 (0.84) | 0.02 (0.99) |
Physical Fight ∗ Time | 2.60 (0.28) | −0.45 (0.72) | 0.37 (0.57) | 0.42 (0.76) |
ACEs ∗ Time | −1.01 (0.07) | 0.20 (0.49) | 0.04 (0.81) | −0.02 (0.94) |
Three-Way Mixed Effects Models | Mental Health Outcomes | |||
Depression Estimate (p-Value) | Anxiety Estimate (p-Value) | Hostility Estimate (p-Value) | Perceived Stress Estimate (p-Value) | |
Emotional | ||||
Loneliness | ||||
Intercept | −7.11 (0.61) | 14.76 (0.05) | 2.86 (0.44) | 16.13 (0.04) |
Loneliness | 1.85 (0.6) | 2.43 (0.21) | 0.92 (0.33) | 1.81 (0.38) |
Time | 4.78 (0.22) | 3.9 (0.05) | 1.82 (0.07) | 2.01 (0.36) |
ACEs | 9.8 (0.02) | 4.87 (0.04) | 3.17 (0.005) | 4.92 (0.05) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −4.85 (0.004) | −2.38 (0.01) | −1.31 (0.003) | −2.24 (0.02) |
Time ∗ Loneliness | −0.65 (0.64) | −1.24 (0.09) | −0.45 (0.22) | −0.6 (0.45) |
Loneliness ∗ ACEs | −1.6 (0.27) | −1.56 (0.05) | −0.96 (0.01) | −1.32 (0.12) |
Loneliness ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 1.36 (0.02) | 0.94 (0.002) | 0.48 (0.002) | 0.79 (0.01) |
Frustration | ||||
Intercept | −8.88 (0.53) | 22.5 (0.003) | 4.94 (0.17) | 17.06 (0.03) |
Frustration | 1.87 (0.6) | −0.44 (0.82) | 0.07 (0.94) | 1.31 (0.52) |
Time | 4.53 (0.23) | −0.76 (0.7) | 0.71 (0.47) | 1.14 (0.59) |
ACEs | 10.43 (0.01) | 2.03 (0.38) | 2.98 (0.01) | 5.72 (0.02) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −4.63 (0.01) | −0.67 (0.44) | −1.2 (0.01) | −2.41 (0.01) |
Time ∗ Frustration | −0.49 (0.72) | 0.57 (0.43) | 0.01 (0.99) | −0.2 (0.79) |
Frustration ∗ ACEs | −1.72 (0.24) | −0.47 (0.56) | −0.86 (0.03) | −1.53 (0.07) |
Frustration ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 1.27 (0.03) | 0.3 (0.32) | 0.43 (0.004) | 0.83 (0.01) |
Suspiciousness | ||||
Intercept | −17.48 (0.2) | 13.7 (0.06) | 2.57 (0.47) | 11.02 (0.14) |
Suspiciousness | 4.35 (0.24) | 2.58 (0.2) | 0.93 (0.34) | 3.15 (0.14) |
Time | 5.1 (0.15) | 1.56 (0.38) | 0.97 (0.29) | 1.65 (0.4) |
ACEs | 7.2 (0.04) | 4.53 (0.02) | 2.01 (0.03) | 4.85 (0.02) |
Time ∗ACEs | −2.33 (0.1) | −1.34 (0.06) | −0.63 (0.09) | −1.55 (0.04) |
Time ∗ Suspiciousness | −1.03 (0.49) | −0.43 (0.57) | −0.17 (0.66) | −0.57 (0.48) |
Suspiciousness ∗ ACEs | −0.91 (0.52) | −1.77 (0.02) | −0.68 (0.08) | −1.61 (0.05) |
Suspiciousness ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 0.62 (0.27) | 0.7 (0.02) | 0.29 (0.05) | 0.69 (0.03) |
Physical | ||||
Physical Inactivity | ||||
Intercept | −0.47 (0.97) | 22.95 (0.001) | 4.77 (0.15) | 22.35 (0.002) |
Physical Inactivity | −1.81 (0.53) | −0.71 (0.66) | 0.21 (0.78) | −1.31 (0.43) |
Time | 1.74 (0.56) | 0.01 (1) | 0.82 (0.29) | −0.51 (0.76) |
ACEs | 1.84 (0.56) | −0.38 (0.83) | 2.24 (0.01) | −0.43 (0.81) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −0.51 (0.68) | 0.24 (0.72) | −0.72 (0.03) | 0.39 (0.58) |
Time ∗ Physical Inactivity | 0.35 (0.76) | 0.21 (0.73) | −0.1 (0.74) | 0.41 (0.53) |
Physical Inactivity ∗ ACEs | 1.31 (0.26) | 0.36 (0.58) | −0.71 (0.02) | 0.7 (0.3) |
Physical Inactivity ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | −0.14 (0.76) | 0 (0.99) | 0.3 (0.01) | −0.16 (0.53) |
Poor Diet | ||||
Intercept | −8.51 (0.51) | 22.9 (0.001) | 3.24 (0.32) | 20.89 (0.004) |
Poor Diet | 1.02 (0.76) | −1.67 (0.36) | 0.77 (0.37) | −1.33 (0.49) |
Time | 5.14 (0.08) | 0.28 (0.85) | 1.57 (0.04) | 0.16 (0.92) |
ACEs | 5.21 (0.09) | −0.32 (0.85) | 2.73 (0.001) | 1.21 (0.5) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −2.29 (0.06) | −0.18 (0.78) | −0.99 (0.002) | −0.49 (0.48) |
Time ∗ Poor Diet | −1.25 (0.35) | 0.15 (0.82) | −0.45 (0.19) | 0.2 (0.79) |
Poor Diet ∗ ACEs | −0.1 (0.94) | 0.41 (0.56) | −0.96 (0.004) | 0.11 (0.89) |
Poor Diet ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 0.65 (0.2) | 0.17 (0.53) | 0.44 (0.001) | 0.18 (0.52) |
Substance Use | ||||
Alcohol use | ||||
Intercept | −11.72 (0.38) | 21.63 (0.002) | 6.21 (0.07) | 12.86 (0.08) |
Increased Alcohol | 4.28 (0.3) | −0.71 (0.76) | −0.8 (0.48) | 4.43 (0.06) |
Time | 6.69 (0.02) | 0.6 (0.69) | −0.07 (0.93) | 3.48 (0.03) |
ACEs | 7.59 (0.01) | −0.74 (0.67) | 0.4 (0.63) | 5.36 (0.003) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −2.6 (0.04) | 0.64 (0.33) | 0.16 (0.63) | −1.85 (0.01) |
Time ∗ Increased Alcohol | −2.48 (0.14) | −0.02 (0.98) | 0.41 (0.37) | −2.07 (0.02) |
Increased Alcohol ∗ ACEs | −1.41 (0.42) | 0.82 (0.42) | 0.06 (0.9) | −2.59 (0.01) |
Increased Alcohol ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 1.04 (0.14) | −0.25 (0.51) | −0.08 (0.68) | 1.18 (0.003) |
Increased Drug Use | ||||
Intercept | −16.65 (0.21) | 16.98 (0.02) | 4.95 (0.14) | 18.06 (0.01) |
Increased Drugs | 7.72 (0.11) | 3.28 (0.22) | 0.52 (0.69) | −0.35 (0.9) |
Time | 6.73 (0.02) | 1.75 (0.27) | 0.51 (0.52) | 0.18 (0.92) |
ACEs | 8.91 (0.003) | 1.53 (0.35) | 0.9 (0.27) | 0.66 (0.7) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −2.72 (0.02) | −0.12 (0.85) | −0.08 (0.79) | 0.19 (0.78) |
Time ∗ Increased Drugs | −3.16 (0.1) | −1 (0.33) | −0.06 (0.92) | 0.15 (0.89) |
Increased Drugs ∗ ACEs | −2.63 (0.15) | −0.81 (0.43) | −0.33 (0.52) | 0.52 (0.62) |
Increased Drugs ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 1.34 (0.07) | 0.31 (0.44) | 0.11 (0.59) | −0.13 (0.76) |
Financial | ||||
Decreased Income | ||||
Intercept | 2.48 (0.85) | 19.43 (0.01) | 3.82 (0.24) | 21.8 (0.002) |
Decreased Income | −2.47 (0.34) | 0.89 (0.53) | 0.37 (0.58) | −0.83 (0.57) |
Time | 1.59 (0.55) | 1.22 (0.39) | 0.9 (0.2) | −0.05 (0.97) |
ACEs | 5.62 (0.05) | 1.21 (0.44) | 2.29 (0.003) | 3.18 (0.05) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −1.78 (0.12) | −0.07 (0.91) | −0.62 (0.04) | −0.91 (0.15) |
Time ∗ Decreased Income | 0.65 (0.53) | −0.33 (0.54) | −0.13 (0.62) | 0.2 (0.73) |
Decreased Income ∗ ACEs | 0.05 (0.96) | −0.32 (0.58) | −0.71 (0.01) | −0.69 (0.24) |
Decreased Income ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 0.28 (0.51) | 0.15 (0.51) | 0.26 (0.02) | 0.34 (0.14) |
Inability to Pay Rent/mortgage | ||||
Intercept | 3.85 (0.77) | 18.79 (0.01) | 5.17 (0.12) | 23.89 (0.001) |
Rent/Mortgage | −5.42 (0.24) | −0.05 (0.98) | −0.44 (0.72) | −3.78 (0.16) |
Time | 1.68 (0.52) | 1.62 (0.23) | 0.72 (0.31) | −0.41 (0.78) |
ACEs | 3.26 (0.22) | 1.68 (0.24) | 1.17 (0.11) | 0.97 (0.53) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −1.17 (0.28) | −0.55 (0.32) | −0.39 (0.18) | −0.45 (0.46) |
Time ∗ Rent/Mortgage | 1.32 (0.48) | −0.51 (0.59) | −0.04 (0.93) | 0.86 (0.41) |
Rent/Mortgage ∗ ACEs | 1.8 (0.25) | −0.47 (0.58) | −0.38 (0.39) | 0.51 (0.57) |
Rent/Mortgage ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | −0.08 (0.9) | 0.43 (0.19) | 0.25 (0.15) | 0.17 (0.64) |
Inability to Pay for Food | ||||
Intercept | 11.26 (0.39) | 18.12 (0.01) | 3.02 (0.37) | 25.99 (0.001) |
Food | −10.83 (0.05) | 0.6 (0.84) | 0.59 (0.69) | −4.55 (0.16) |
Time | −1.19 (0.69) | 1.81 (0.23) | 1.08 (0.17) | −0.66 (0.7) |
ACEs | 1.92 (0.5) | 1.83 (0.22) | 2.04 (0.01) | 0.41 (0.8) |
Time ∗ACEs | −0.72 (0.53) | −0.65 (0.26) | −0.62 (0.04) | −0.25 (0.7) |
Time ∗ Food | 3.78 (0.09) | −0.75 (0.51) | −0.28 (0.63) | 1.02 (0.42) |
Food ∗ ACEs | 2.88 (0.11) | −0.71 (0.46) | −0.95 (0.05) | 0.85 (0.42) |
Food ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | −0.47 (0.52) | 0.55 (0.14) | 0.40 (0.04) | 0.06 (0.88) |
Relationship | ||||
Arguments | ||||
Intercept | −4.16 (0.75) | 14.19 (0.03) | 2.35 (0.47) | 17.58 (0.01) |
Serious argument | −6.37 (0.07) | 0.68 (0.71) | 0.75 (0.4) | −1.85 (0.37) |
Time | −1.6 (0.54) | 1.39 (0.3) | 1.04 (0.11) | −1.29 (0.39) |
ACEs | 2.35 (0.41) | 2.71 (0.07) | 2.93 (<0.001) | 0.54 (0.74) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −0.74 (0.51) | −1.03 (0.07) | −1.04 (<0.001) | −0.09 (0.89) |
Time ∗ Serious argument | 2.96 (0.03) | −0.27 (0.7) | −0.18 (0.61) | 1.08 (0.17) |
Serious argument ∗ ACEs | 1.8 (0.18) | −1 (0.15) | −1.2 (0.001) | 0.44 (0.58) |
Serious argument ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | −0.3 (0.57) | 0.59 (0.03) | 0.52 (<0.001) | −0.03 (0.93) |
Physical fights | ||||
Intercept | −6.48 (0.73) | 12.26 (0.2) | 4.58 (0.34) | 7.24 (0.48) |
Physical Fight | −0.73 (0.95) | 6.01 (0.37) | 0.19 (0.96) | 9.77 (0.18) |
Time | 1.58 (0.77) | 3.6 (0.2) | 0.63 (0.67) | 4.05 (0.19) |
ACEs | 7.8 (0.09) | 3.17 (0.2) | 0.83 (0.51) | 5.94 (0.03) |
Time ∗ ACEs | −1.57 (0.4) | −0.71 (0.46) | −0.14 (0.78) | −1.54 (0.15) |
Time ∗ Physical Fight | 1.2 (0.81) | −2.72 (0.3) | −0.08 (0.95) | −3.39 (0.24) |
Physical Fight ∗ ACEs | −2.21 (0.59) | −2.31 (0.29) | −0.33 (0.77) | −4.28 (0.07) |
Physical Fight ∗ ACEs ∗ Time | 0.52 (0.75) | 0.84 (0.32) | 0.17 (0.71) | 1.41 (0.13) |
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Pre-COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
N | 171 | 171 | |
Sex (%) | |||
Male | 42.7 | ||
Female | 57.3 | ||
Age, years (Mean, SD) | 22.1 (1.5) | ||
Education (%) | |||
Grade 12 or less | 8.8 | ||
High School diploma (or GED) | 19.9 | ||
Partial college/training | 21.1 | ||
College/university degree | 43.9 | ||
Graduate/professional degree | 6.4 | ||
ACEs score, (%) | |||
0 | 16.4 | ||
1 | 25.7 | ||
2 | 23.4 | ||
3 | 12.3 | ||
4 or more | 22.2 | ||
COVID-19 Measures (Mean, SD) | |||
Emotional | |||
Lonely and isolated | 2.7 (0.96) | ||
Irritable, frustrated, or angry | 2.6 (0.97) | ||
Suspicious and distrustful of others | 2.2 (0.97) | ||
Lifestyle | |||
Less physically active | 2.4 (1.17) | ||
Diet has gotten worse | 2.1 (1.02) | ||
Substance Use | |||
Increased how often/much I drink alcohol | 1.7 (0.90) | ||
Increased how often/much I use recreational drugs | 1.5 (0.83) | ||
Financial | |||
Job hours cut/lost income | 2.4 (1.33) | ||
Unable to pay rent/mortgage | 1.3 (0.79) | ||
Unable to pay for food | 1.3 (0.72) | ||
Relationship | |||
Serious arguments with people I live with | 1.8 (0.97) | ||
Serious physical fights with people I live with | 1.1 (0.32) | ||
Mental Health Outcomes (mean, SD) 1 | |||
Depression | 16.2 (11.1) | 17.2 (12.2) | 0.200 |
Anxiety | 16.8 (5.6) | 17.8 (6.0) | 0.011 |
Hostility | 9.4 (2.6) | 10.1 (3.0) | 0.002 |
Perceived Stress | 27.1 (6.0) | 27.4 (6.5) | 0.392 |
During COVID-19 Mental Health Outcomes | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ACEs r (p-Value) | Depression r (p-Value) | Anxiety r (p-Value) | Hostility r (p-Value) | Perceived Stress r (p-Value) | |
ACEs | - | 0.30 (<0.001) | 0.34 (<0.001) | 0.22 (0.004) | 0.32 (<0.001) |
COVID-19 Stressors | |||||
Emotional | |||||
Loneliness | 0.14 (0.06) | 0.42 (<0.001) | 0.24 (0.002) | 0.20 (0.01) | 0.38 (<0.001) |
Frustration | 0.18 (0.02) | 0.41 (<0.001) | 0.39 (<0.001) | 0.33 (<0.001) | 0.46 (<0.001) |
Suspiciousness | 0.12 (0.11) | 0.28 (0.002) | 0.35 (<0.001) | 0.29 (0.001) | 0.39 (<0.001) |
Lifestyle | |||||
Physical activity | −0.02 (0.83) | 0.05 (0.50) | −0.07 (0.38) | 0.04 (0.65) | 0.06 (0.45) |
Diet | 0.00 (0.96) | 0.14 (0.08) | 0.12 (0.13) | 0.14 (0.08) | 0.11 (0.16) |
Substance Use | |||||
Alcohol use | 0.05 (0.55) | 0.13 (0.09) | 0.16 (0.03) | 0.15 (0.06) | 0.10 (0.19) |
Drug use | 0.17 (0.03) | 0.18 (0.02) | 0.21 (0.01) | 0.14 (0.06) | 0.19 (0.01) |
Financial | |||||
Income | 0.07 (0.34) | 0.17 (0.03) | 0.08 (0.32) | 0.08 (0.29) | 0.14 (0.07) |
Rent/mortgage | 0.33 (<0.001) | 0.22 (0.01) | 0.12 (0.12) | 0.16 (0.04) | 0.23 (0.003) |
Food | 0.33 (<0.001) | 0.33 (<0.001) | 0.18 (0.02) | 0.18 (0.02) | 0.24 (0.002) |
Relationship | |||||
Arguments | 0.20 (0.01) | 0.37 (<0.001) | 0.29 (<0.001) | 0.34 (<0.001) | 0.37 (<0.001) |
Physical fights | 0.10 (0.20) | 0.06 (0.46) | −0.05 (0.56) | 0.07 (0.40) | 0.02 (0.85) |
COVID-19-Related Stress∗ACEs∗Time Regression Coefficients | Mental Health Outcomes | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Depression Estimate (p-Value) | Anxiety Estimate (p-Value) | Hostility Estimate (p-Value) | Perceived Stress Estimate (p-Value) | |
Emotional | ||||
Loneliness | 1.36 (0.02) †‡ | 0.94 (0.002) | 0.48 (0.002) † | 0.79 (0.01) † |
Frustration | 1.27 (0.03) †‡ | 0.30 (0.32) † | 0.43 (0.004) † | 0.83 (0.01) † |
Suspiciousness | 0.62 (0.27) | 0.70 (0.02) † | 0.29 (<0.05) † | 0.69 (0.03) † |
Lifestyle | ||||
Physical activity | −0.14 (0.76) | 0.00 (0.99) | 0.30 (0.01) † | −0.16 (0.53) |
Diet | 0.65 (0.2) | 0.17 (0.53) | 0.44 (0.001) † | 0.18 (0.52) |
Substance Use | ||||
Alcohol use | 1.04 (0.14) | −0.25 (0.51) | −0.08 (0.68) | 1.18 (0.003) |
Drug use | 1.34 (0.07) | 0.31 (0.44) | 0.11 (0.59) | −0.13 (0.76) |
Financial | ||||
Income | 0.28 (0.51) †‡ | 0.15 (0.51) | 0.26 (0.02) † | 0.34 (0.14) † |
Rent/mortgage | −0.08 (0.9) ‡ | 0.43 (0.19) | 0.25 (0.15) † | 0.17 (0.64) † |
Food | −0.47 (0.52) †‡ | 0.55 (0.14) | 0.40 (0.04) † | 0.06 (0.88) |
Relationship | ||||
Arguments | −0.30 (0.57) †‡ | 0.59 (0.03) † | 0.52 (<0.001) † | −0.03 (0.93) † |
Physical fights | 0.52 (0.75) | 0.84 (0.32) | 0.17 (0.71) | 1.41 (0.13) |
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Alradhi, M.A.; Moore, J.; Patte, K.A.; O’Leary, D.D.; Wade, T.J. Adverse Childhood Experiences and COVID-19 Stress on Changes in Mental Health among Young Adults. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12874. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912874
Alradhi MA, Moore J, Patte KA, O’Leary DD, Wade TJ. Adverse Childhood Experiences and COVID-19 Stress on Changes in Mental Health among Young Adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12874. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912874
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlradhi, Meshari A., Jessy Moore, Karen A. Patte, Deborah D. O’Leary, and Terrance J. Wade. 2022. "Adverse Childhood Experiences and COVID-19 Stress on Changes in Mental Health among Young Adults" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12874. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912874