Certain Dietary Nutrients Reduce the Risk of Eye Affliction/Retinopathy in Individuals with Diabetes: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003–2018
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Outcome and Covariates
2.3. Ascertainment of Diet
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Participants
3.2. Macrodietary Nutrients
3.3. Dietary Fatty Acids
3.4. Dietary Vitamins
3.5. Formatting of Mathematical Components
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Total n = 4595 | Self-Reported Eye Affliction/Retinopathy in Individuals with Diabetes | t/χ2 | p-Value a | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes n = 978 | No n = 3617 | ||||
Male, n (%) | 2288 (49.79) | 497 (50.82) | 1791 (49.52) | 0.52 | 0.470 |
Age (year, ± s) | 62.19 ± 13.20 | 62.62 ± 12.18 | 62.08 ± 13.45 | 1.15 | 0.252 |
Duration of diabetes (year, ± s) | 12.23 ± 11.76 | 16.90 ± 12.80 | 10.96 ± 11.14 | 14.28 | <0.0001 |
BMI (kg/m2, ± s) | 32.30 ± 7.52 | 32.61 ± 7.84 | 32.22 ± 7.43 | 1.42 | 0.157 |
SBP (mmHg, ± s) | 132.22 ± 20.57 | 133.05 ± 21.76 | 131.99 ± 20.22 | 1.40 | 0.161 |
DBP (mmHg, ± s) | 68.34 ± 13.27 | 67.70 ± 13.14 | 68.51 ± 13.30 | −1.67 | 0.095 |
Hypertension, n (%) | 3196 (69.55) | 697 (71.27) | 2499 (69.09) | 1.72 | 0.189 |
Taking insulin now, n (%) | 1294 (28.16) | 489 (50.00) | 805 (22.26) | 284.90 | <0.0001 |
Smoke, n (%) | 0.52 | 0.770 | |||
Smoking now | 597 (12.99) | 124 (12.68) | 473 (13.08) | ||
Cigarettes | 1674 (36.43) | 368 (37.63) | 1306 (36.11) | ||
Never | 2295 (49.95) | 485 (49.59) | 1810 (50.04) | ||
Drinks, n (%) | 1304 (28.39) | 288 (29.45) | 1016 (28.09) | 0.70 | 0.403 |
Race, n (%) | 23.48 | <0.0001 | |||
Non-Hispanic whites | 1636 (35.60) | 319 (32.62) | 1317 (36.41) | ||
Non-Hispanic black | 1251 (27.23) | 266 (27.20) | 985 (27.23) | ||
Mexican American | 876 (19.06) | 189 (19.33) | 687 (18.99) | ||
Other race | 832 (18.11) | 204 (20.86) | 628 (17.36) | ||
Education Level, n (%) | 12.72 | 0.005 | |||
Less than high school | 868 (18.89) | 213 (21.78) | 655 (18.11) | ||
High school | 1810 (39.39) | 394 (40.29) | 1416 (39.15) | ||
College | 1203 (26.18) | 248 (25.36) | 955 (26.40) | ||
College above | 705 (15.34) | 122 (12.47) | 583 (16.12) | ||
C-reactive protein (mg/dL) b | 0.29 (0.12–0.65) | 0.28 (0.13–0.62) | 0.29 (0.12–0.65) | 0.91 | 0.365 |
HDL—Cholesterol (mmol/L) b | 1.19 (1.01–1.45) | 1.19 (1.01–1.45) | 1.19 (1.01–1.45) | 0.86 | 0.392 |
LDL—Cholesterol (mmol/L) b | 2.48 (1.91–3.18) | 2.37 (1.89–3.18) | 2.51 (1.91–3.18) | −0.59 | 0.553 |
Total Cholesterol (mmol/L) b | 4.58 (3.88–5.40) | 4.55 (3.90–5.40) | 4.58 (3.88–5.40) | 0.08 | 0.939 |
Triglyceride (mmol/L) b | 1.43 (1.01–2.10) | 1.42 (1.01–2.13) | 1.43 (1.02–2.09) | −0.41 | 0.685 |
Glycohemoglobin (%) b | 6.90 (6.20–8.10) | 7.20 (6.30–8.40) | 6.90 (6.20–8.00) | 3.59 | <0.0001 |
Albumin, urine (mg/L) b | 15.05 (6.43–50.00) | 20.50 (7.83–77.13) | 14.00 (6.20–42.70) | 6.21 | <0.0001 |
Creatinine, urine (mg/dL) b | 100.00(62.00–149.00) | 96.00(61.00–142.00) | 101.00(63.00–151.00) | −1.40 | 0.161 |
Quintile of Macrodietary Nutrients, OR (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Energy (kcal) | 1.00 | 1.04 (0.84–1.30) | 1.00 (0.80–1.25) | 0.82 (0.65–1.03) | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) |
Protein (gm) | 1.00 | 1.16 (0.93–1.45) | 1.03 (0.82–1.29) | 1.00 (0.79–1.26) | 1.18 (0.95–1.48) |
Carbohydrate (gm) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.79–1.21) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.81 (0.65–1.01) | 0.82 (0.66–1.03) |
Total sugars (gm) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.90–1.38) | 0.81 (0.65–1.02) | 0.93 (0.74–1.16) | 0.81 (0.64–1.01) |
Dietary fiber (gm) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.90–1.38) | 0.97 (0.78–1.21) | 0.80 (0.64–1.00) | 0.78 (0.62–0.98) |
Cholesterol (mg) | 1.00 | 1.19 (0.95–1.49) | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.98 (0.77–1.23) | 1.26 (1.01–1.58) |
Moisture (gm) | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.90–1.39) | 0.90 (0.72–1.13) | 0.96 (0.77–1.21) | 1.01 (0.80–1.26) |
Quintile of Dietary Nutrients, OR (95% CI) | p Trend | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | ||
Dietary fiber (gm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.90–1.37) | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) | 0.80 (0.63–0.99) | 0.77 (0.61–0.96) | 0.001 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 1.35 (0.99–1.84) | 0.92 (0.66–1.29) | 0.82 (0.58–1.15) | 0.75 (0.52–1.07) | 0.006 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 1.35 (0.97–1.85) | 0.99 (0.74–1.30) | 0.85 (0.61–1.17) | 0.74 (0.49–1.01) | 0.016 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 1.34 (0.96–1.85) | 1.03 (0.73–1.46) | 0.85 (0.59–1.21) | 0.80 (0.55–1.16) | 0.034 |
Cholesterol (mg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 1.18 (0.95–1.48) | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.97 (0.77–1.23) | 1.27 (1.01–1.59) | 0.273 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 1.44 (1.04–1.98) | 0.98 (0.70–1.39) | 1.10 (0.78–1.55) | 1.64 (1.18–2.29) | 0.054 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 1.19 (0.94–1.49) | 1.00 (0.80–1.26) | 1.06 (0.84–1.33) | 1.28 (1.01–1.61) | 0.153 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 1.46 (1.04–2.05) | 1.04 (0.72–1.49) | 1.13 (0.79–1.62) | 1.52 (1.07–2.16) | 0.138 |
SFA 4:0 (Butanoic) (gm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.79 (0.63–0.99) | 0.93 (0.67–1.04) | 1.05 (0.85–1.30) | 0.86 (0.68–1.07) | 0.903 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.72 (0.52–1.00) | 0.83 (0.60–1.15) | 1.14 (0.83–1.57) | 0.82 (0.58–1.16) | 0.885 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.71–1.13) | 0.94 (0.74–1.18) | 1.17 (0.93–1.48) | 0.92 (0.73–1.17) | 0.160 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.77 (0.54–1.09) | 0.85 (0.61–1.20) | 1.23 (0.88–1.72) | 0.91 (0.63–1.31) | 0.515 |
SFA 8:0 (Octanoic) (gm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.58–0.91) | 0.89 (0.71–1.10) | 0.94 (0.75–1.16) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.841 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.53–1.03) | 0.86 (0.62–1.18) | 0.92 (0.66–1.28) | 1.02 (0.73–1.42) | 0.599 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.75 (0.59–0.94) | 0.89 (0.71–1.13) | 0.93 (0.74–1.18) | 0.94 (0.74–1.19) | 0.117 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.52–1.05) | 0.84 (0.60–1.19) | 0.93 (0.66–1.33) | 1.05 (0.74–1.49) | 0.516 |
MFA 16:1 (Hexadecenoic) (gm) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.88–1.39) | 1.10 (0.88–1.38) | 0.96 (0.76–1.22) | 1.27 (1.02–1.60) | 0.160 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 1.14 (0.83–1.56) | 1.07 (0.76–1.50) | 1.14 (0.82–1.60) | 1.21 (0.84–1.73) | 0.349 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 1.10 (0.87–1.38) | 1.12 (0.90–1.42) | 0.96 (0.76–1.21) | 1.40 (1.10–1.78) | 0.018 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 1.20 (0.86–1.67) | 1.03 (0.72–1.46) | 1.17 (0.82–1.66) | 1.16 (0.79–1.69) | 0.525 |
Vitamin A (mcg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) | 0.82 (0.65–1.02) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.73 (0.58–0.92) | 0.016 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.86 (0.62–1.19) | 1.02 (0.73–1.41) | 1.00 (0.73–1.37) | 0.68 (0.48–0.96) | 0.157 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.80–1.28) | 0.81 (0.65–1.00) | 1.02 (0.81–1.28) | 0.78 (0.62–0.98) | 0.043 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.60–1.19) | 1.03 (0.73–1.45) | 1.02 (0.73–1.42) | 0.70 (0.48–1.02) | 0.278 |
Alpha-carotene, (mcg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.83–1.27) | 0.69 (0.55–0.87) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.92 (0.71–1.14) | 0.234 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 1.35 (0.97–1.88) | 0.96 (0.68–1.36) | 1.16 (0.83–1.64) | 1.05 (0.75–1.48) | 0.861 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.80–1.41) | 0.73 (0.58–0.92) | 0.99 (0.79–1.26) | 0.95 (0.75–1.19) | 0.224 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 1.35 (0.95–1.91) | 0.87 (0.60–1.26) | 1.13 (0.79–1.62) | 1.12 (0.78–1.59) | 0.948 |
Folate, DFE (mcg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.67–1.04) | 0.96 (0.77–1.19) | 0.75 (0.59–0.94) | 0.83 (0.66–1.04) | 0.055 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.58–1.11) | 0.87 (0.63–1.19) | 0.77 (0.55–1.07) | 0.96 (0.69–1.33) | 0.611 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.89 (0.71–1.13) | 1.10 (0.87–1.39) | 0.80 (0.64–1.01) | 0.89 (0.70–1.21) | 0.066 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.57–1.12) | 0.88 (0.63–1.22) | 0.82 (0.58–1.17) | 1.00 (0.71–1.42) | 0.921 |
Magnesium (mg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.76–1.17) | 0.90 (0.72–1.12) | 0.76 (0.60–0.95) | 0.78 (0.62–0.98) | 0.006 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.77–1.44) | 0.88 (0.64–1.21) | 0.76 (0.54–1.07) | 0.78 (0.54–1.11) | 0.040 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.78–1.24) | 0.98 (0.77–1.23) | 0.77 (0.56–1.08) | 0.78 (0.54–1.01) | 0.032 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 1.12 (0.81–1.55) | 0.96 (0.69–1.35) | 0.86 (0.60–1.22) | 0.77 (0.53–1.12) | 0.079 |
Copper (mg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.73 (0.59–0.91) | 0.83 (0.67–1.02) | 0.72 (0.58–0.89) | 0.66 (0.52–0.82) | 0.001 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.72 (0.53–0.98) | 0.77 (0.57–1.05) | 0.59 (0.42–0.83) | 0.64 (0.45–0.91) | 0.003 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.56–0.97) | 0.86 (0.68–1.08) | 0.61 (0.44–0.90) | 0.68 (0.44–0.89) | 0.011 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.77 (0.56–1.07) | 0.83 (0.60–1.15) | 0.63 (0.45–0.90) | 0.70 (0.49–1.01) | 0.019 |
Caffeine (mg) | ||||||
Model 1 | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.64–0.99) | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | 0.86 (0.69–1.07) | 0.88 (0.71–1.10) | 0.441 |
Model 2 | 1.00 | 0.65 (0.47–0.90) | 0.99 (0.72–1.34) | 0.87 (0.62–1.21) | 0.87 (0.61–1.24) | 0.837 |
Model 3 | 1.00 | 0.83 (0.66–1.04) | 0.99 (0.79–1.25) | 0.84 (0.67–1.05) | 0.87 (0.69–1.10) | 0.331 |
Model 4 | 1.00 | 0.67 (0.47–0.95) | 1.01 (0.73–1.41) | 0.80 (0.56–1.13) | 0.96 (0.66–1.39) | 0.977 |
Quintile of Dietary Fatty Acids, OR (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Total fat (gm) | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.74–1.16) | 1.05 (0.84–1.31) | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 0.99 (0.79–1.23) |
Total saturated fatty acids (gm) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) | 1.06 (0.85–1.33) |
SFA 4:0 (Butanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.79 (0.63–0.99) | 0.83 (0.67–1.04) | 1.05 (0.85–1.30) | 0.86 (0.69–1.07) |
SFA 6:0 (Hexanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.84 (0.67–1.05) | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) | 1.09 (0.88–1.36) | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) |
SFA 8:0 (Octanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.72 (0.58–0.91) | 0.88 (0.71–1.10) | 0.94 (0.75–1.16) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) |
SFA 10:0 (Decanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.82 (0.65–1.03) | 0.98 (0.79–1.22) | 1.02 (0.82–1.26) | 0.97 (0.78–1.21) |
SFA 12:0 (Dodecanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.68–1.06) | 0.98 (0.79–1.22) | 0.80 (0.64–1.01) | 1.02 (0.82–1.27) |
SFA 14:0 (Tetradecanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.88 (0.70–1.01) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) | 1.13 (0.91–1.40) | 1.02 (0.81–1.27) |
SFA 16:0 (Hexadecanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.77–1.21) | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) | 1.11 (0.89–1.38) |
SFA 18:0 (Octadecanoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.97 (0.77–1.21) | 1.00 (0.80–1.25) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) | 1.03 (0.83–1.29) |
Total monounsaturated fatty acids (gm) | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.72–1.14) | 1.08 (0.87–1.35) | 1.00 (0.80–1.25) | 0.97 (0.78–1.21) |
MFA 16:1 (Hexadecenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.89–1.39) | 1.11 (0.88–1.39) | 0.96 (0.76–1.22) | 1.27 (1.02–1.59) |
MFA 18:1 (Octadecenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 1.10 (0.88–1.37) | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) |
MFA 20:1 (Eicosenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.91 (0.73–1.14) | 0.85 (0.68–1.07) | 1.19 (0.96–1.47) | 0.86 (0.68–1.07) |
MFA 22:1 (Docosenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 1.14 (0.91–1.42) | 1.14 (0.91–1.43) | 1.13 (0.90–1.41) | 1.13 (0.91–1.42) |
Total polyunsaturated fatty acids (gm) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 1.06 (0.85–1.32) | 1.18 (0.95–1.47) | 0.90 (0.71–1.13) |
PFA 18:2 (Octadecadienoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.78–1.23) | 1.03 (0.83–1.29) | 1.20 (0.97–1.49) | 0.86 (0.68–1.08) |
PFA 18:3 (Octadecatrienoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 1.19 (0.96–0.48) | 1.08 (0.87–1.35) | 0.92 (0.73–1.15) |
PFA 18:4 (Octadecatetraenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.78–1.31) | 0.98 (0.80–1.20) | 1.07 (0.87–1.32) | 0.98 (0.80–1.19) |
PFA 20:4 (Eicosatetraenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) | 0.92 (0.73–1.15) | 1.10 (0.88–1.36) |
PFA 20:5 (Eicosapentaenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 1.02 (0.81–1.28) | 1.19 (0.95–1.48) | 1.19 (0.95–1.49) | 1.10 (0.88–1.38) |
PFA 22:5 (Docosapentaenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 0.92 (0.74–1.15) | 1.10 (0.89–1.37) | 0.89 (0.71–1.11) | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) |
PFA 22:6 (Docosahexaenoic) (gm) | 1.00 | 1.11 (0.89–1.39) | 0.88 (0.69–1.11) | 1.16 (0.93–1.45) | 1.03 (0.82–1.29) |
Quintile of Dietary Vitamins, OR (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Vitamin E as alpha-tocopherol (mg) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.79–1.22) | 1.06 (0.85–1.32) | 0.93 (0.75–1.16) | 0.81 (0.64–1.02) |
Retinol (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.23 (0.99–1.52) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) | 1.03 (0.83–1.29) |
Vitamin A (mcg) | 1.00 | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) | 0.83 (0.66–1.03) | 0.93 (0.75–1.15) | 0.74 (0.59–0.93) |
Alpha-carotene (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.83–1.28) | 0.70 (0.55–0.88) | 0.93 (0.75–1.16) | 0.93 (0.74–1.15) |
Beta-carotene (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 1.01 (0.81–1.25) | 0.98 (0.80–1.23) | 0.81 (0.65–1.02) |
Beta-cryptoxanthin (mcg) | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.72–1.13) | 1.10 (0.88–1.37) | 0.97 (0.77–1.21) | 0.95 (0.76–1.19) |
Lycopene (mcg) | 1.00 | 0.78 (0.62–0.97) | 0.73 (0.58–0.91) | 0.89 (0.72–1.10) | 0.85 (0.69–1.06) |
Lutein + zeaxanthin (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.03 (0.83–1.28) | 0.96 (0.77–1.20) | 1.01 (0.81–1.25) | 0.83 (0.66–1.04) |
Thiamin (Vitamin B1) (mg) | 1.00 | 1.07 (0.86–1.34) | 1.03 (0.82–1.28) | 1.05 (0.84–1.31) | 0.87 (0.69–1.10) |
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) (mg) | 1.00 | 0.90 (0.72–1.26) | 0.94 (0.75–1.17) | 0.94 (0.76–1.18) | 0.92 (0.74–1.15) |
Niacin (mg) | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.75–1.17) | 0.97 (0.77–1.21) | 1.02 (0.82–1.27) | 0.94 (0.75–1.18) |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.00 | 0.98 (0.79–1.22) | 0.97 (0.78–0.21) | 0.88 (0.70–1.10) | 0.91 (0.73–1.15) |
Folate, DFE (mcg) | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.68–1.06) | 0.97 (0.78–1.20) | 075 (0.60–0.95) | 0.84 (0.67–1.05) |
Total choline (mg) | 1.00 | 1.20 (0.97–1.50) | 0.88 (0.70–1.11) | 0.99 (0.78–1.24) | 1.16 (0.93–1.45) |
Vitamin B12 (mcg) | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.94–0.99) | 0.94 (0.76–1.17) | 0.92 (0.74–1.14) | 0.86 (0.69–1.07) |
Vitamin C (mg) | 1.00 | 1.08 (0.87–1.34) | 1.03 (0.83–1.29) | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 0.85 (0.68–1.07) |
Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.10 (0.88–1.37) | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 1.03 (0.83–1.30) | 1.00 (0.80–1.25) |
Vitamin K (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.06 (0.85–1.33) | 1.10 (0.89–1.38) | 0.98 (0.78–1.22) | 0.84 (0.66–1.06) |
Quintile of Dietary Micronutrients, OR (95% CI) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
Calcium (mg) | 1.00 | 0.94 (0.76–1.18) | 0.97 (0.78–1.20) | 0.92 (0.73–1.15) | 0.93 (0.74–1.16) |
Phosphorus (mg) | 1.00 | 1.05 (0.84–1.31) | 0.92 (0.74–1.16) | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) | 0.98 (0.79–1.23) |
Magnesium (mg) | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.77–1.17) | 0.91 (0.73–1.13) | 0.77 (0.61–0.96) | 0.79 (0.64–0.99) |
Iron (mg) | 1.00 | 1.16 (0.93–1.44) | 1.12 (0.90–1.40) | 0.99 (0.79–1.24) | 0.89 (0.70–1.12) |
Zinc (mg) | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | 0.84 (0.67–1.05) | 0.97 (0.78–1.21) | 0.94 (0.76–1.18) |
Copper (mg) | 1.00 | 0.74 (0.60–0.92) | 0.84 (0.68–1.03) | 0.73 (0.58–0.90) | 0.67 (0.54–0.84) |
Sodium (mg) | 1.00 | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | 0.93 (0.74–1.16) | 0.93 (0.74–1.16) | 1.02 (0.82–1.26) |
Potassium (mg) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.82–1.26) | 0.88 (0.70–1.10) | 0.87 (0.69–1.08) | 0.90 (0.72–1.12) |
Selenium (mcg) | 1.00 | 1.01 (0.81–1.26) | 1.04 (0.83–1.30) | 0.98 (0.78–1.23) | 1.08 (0.86–1.34) |
Caffeine (mg) | 1.00 | 0.80 (0.64–0.99) | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | 0.87 (0.69–1.08) | 0.89 (0.72–1.11) |
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Zhang, G.; Sun, X.; Yuan, T.; Guo, C.; Zhou, Z.; Wang, L.; Dou, G. Certain Dietary Nutrients Reduce the Risk of Eye Affliction/Retinopathy in Individuals with Diabetes: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003–2018. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12173. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912173
Zhang G, Sun X, Yuan T, Guo C, Zhou Z, Wang L, Dou G. Certain Dietary Nutrients Reduce the Risk of Eye Affliction/Retinopathy in Individuals with Diabetes: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003–2018. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12173. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912173
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Guoheng, Xiaojia Sun, Tianhao Yuan, Changmei Guo, Ziyi Zhou, Ling Wang, and Guorui Dou. 2022. "Certain Dietary Nutrients Reduce the Risk of Eye Affliction/Retinopathy in Individuals with Diabetes: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2003–2018" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12173. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912173