Transmission and Control of SARS-CoV-2 in the Food Production Sector: A Rapid Narrative Review of the Literature
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- What is the evidence for an increased risk of infection, outbreaks and COVID-19 mortality rates in the food production sector compared to other sectors?
- Which risk factors contribute to any elevated COVID-19 infection and mortality rates in the food production sector?
- Which preventative measures/risk mitigation strategies have been taken to reduce COVID-19 in the food production sector, and which have shown to be effective?
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. General Findings
3.2. What Is the Evidence for an Increased Risk of Infection, Outbreaks and COVID-19 Mortality Rates in the Food Production Sector Compared to Other Sectors?
3.2.1. Meat and Poultry Facilities
3.2.2. Other Food Production Facilities
3.3. Which Risk Factors Contribute to Any Elevated COVID-19 Infection and Mortality Rates in the Food Production Sector?
3.3.1. Transport
3.3.2. Shared Accommodation
3.3.3. Temporary Workers
3.3.4. Income and Sick Pay
Sick Pay
3.3.5. Environmental Factors
3.3.6. Ethnicity
3.4. Which Preventative Measures/Risk Mitigation Strategies Have Been Taken to Reduce COVID-19 in the Food Production Sector, and Which Have Shown to Be Effective?
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
6. Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Gorbalenya, A.E.; Baker, S.C.; Baric, R.; Groot, R.J.D.; Drosten, C.; Gulyaeva, A.A.; Haagmans, B.L.; Lauber, C.; Leontovich, A.M.; Neuman, B.W.; et al. Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: The species and its viruses—A statement of the Coronavirus Study Group. bioRxiv 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pascarella, G.; Strumia, A.; Piliego, C.; Bruno, F.; Del Buono, R.; Costa, F.; Scarlata, S.; Agrò, F.E. COVID-19 diagnosis and management: A comprehensive review. J. Intern. Med. 2020, 288, 192–206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. Getting Your Workplace Ready for COVID-19: How COVID-19 Spreads; Report No.: WHO/2019-nCov/workplace/2020.2; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2020; Available online: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331584 (accessed on 9 June 2022).
- Morawska, L.; Milton, D.K. It Is Time to Address Airborne Transmission of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020, 71, 2311–2313. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Agius, R.M.; Robertson, J.F.; Kendrick, D.; Sewell, H.F.; Stewart, M.; McKee, M. COVID-19 in the workplace. BMJ 2020, 370, m3577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- The Lancet. The plight of essential workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet 2020, 395, 1587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bui, D.P.; McCaffrey, K.; Friedrichs, M.; LaCross, N.; Lewis, N.M.; Sage, K.; Dunn, A. Racial and Ethnic Disparities Among COVID-19 Cases in Workplace Outbreaks by Industry Sector—Utah, March 6–June 5 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 1133. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6933e3.htm (accessed on 8 March 2021). [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.-H.; Glymour, M.; Riley, A.; Balmes, J.; Duchowny, K.; Harrison, R.; Matthay, E.; Bibbins-Domingo, K. Excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic among Californians 18–65 years of age, by occupational sector and occupation: March through November 2020. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0252454. Available online: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0252454 (accessed on 9 March 2021). [CrossRef]
- Dyal, J.W.; Grant, M.P.; Broadwater, K.; Bjork, A.; Waltenburg, M.A.; Gibbins, J.D. COVID-19 Among Workers in Meat and Poultry Processing Facilities—19 States, April 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 557–561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Herstein, J.J.; Degarege, A.; Stover, D.; Austin, C.; Schwedhelm, M.M.; Lawler, J.V.; Donahue, M. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 Transmission among Meat Processing Workers in Nebraska, USA, and Effectiveness of Risk Mitigation Measures. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2021, 27, 1032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- House, H.R.; Vakkalanka, J.P.; Behrens, N.G.; De Haan, J.; Halbur, C.R.; Harrington, E.M.; Patel, P.H.; Rawwas, L.; Camargo, C.A.; Kline, J.A. Agricultural workers in meatpacking plants presenting to an emergency department with suspected COVID-19 infection are disproportionately Black and Hispanic. Acad. Emerg. Med. 2021, 28, 1012–1018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rubenstein, B.L.; Campbell, S.; Meyers, A.R.; Crum, D.A.; Mitchell, C.S.; Hutson, J.; D’Ann, L.W.; Senesie, S.S.; Gilani, Z.; Reynolds, S.; et al. Factors That Might Affect SARS-CoV-2 Transmission Among Foreign-Born and U.S.-Born Poultry Facility Workers—Maryland, May 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 1906. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Steinberg, J. COVID-19 Outbreak Among Employees at a Meat Processing Facility—South Dakota, March–April 2020. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2020, 69, 1015. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6931a2.htm (accessed on 9 June 2022). [CrossRef]
- VanderWaal, K.; Black, L.; Hodge, J.; Bedada, A.; Dee, S. Modeling transmission dynamics and effectiveness of worker screening programs for SARS-CoV-2 in pork processing plants. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0249143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Waltenburg, M.A.; Rose, C.E.; Victoroff, T.; Butterfield, M.; Dillaha, J.A.; Heinzerling, A.; Chuey, M.; Fierro, M.; Jervis, R.H.; Fedak, K.M.; et al. Coronavirus Disease among Workers in Food Processing, Food Manufacturing, and Agriculture Workplaces. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2021, 27, 243–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Aldridge, T.; Ferraro, C.; Khaw, F.M. COVID-19 outbreak rates and infection attack rates associated with the workplace: A descriptive epidemiological study. medRxiv 2022, 12, e055643. Available online: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2021.05.06.21256757v1 (accessed on 9 June 2022). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hiironen, I.; Saavedra-Campos, M.; Panitz, J.; Ma, T.; Nsonwu, O.; Charlett, A.; Hughes, G.; Oliver, I. Occupational exposures associated with being a COVID-19 case; evidence from three case-controls studies. Public Glob. Health 2020, 15. Available online: http://medrxiv.org/lookup/doi/10.1101/2020.12.21.20248161 (accessed on 30 March 2021).
- Moore, S.; Ball, C.; Cai, M. Research into COVID-19 Workplace Safety Outcomes in the Food and Drinks Sector; Trades Union Congress and University of Greenwich: London, UK, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Mutambudzi, M.; Niedzwiedz, C.; Macdonald, E.B.; Leyland, A.; Mair, F.; Anderson, J.; Celis-Morales, C.; Cleland, J.; Forbes, J.; Gill, J.; et al. Occupation and risk of severe COVID-19: Prospective cohort study of 120 075 UK Biobank participants. Occup. Environ. Med. 2021, 78, 307–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nafilyan, V.; Pawelek, P.; Ayoubkhani, D.; Rhodes, S.; Pembrey, L.; Matz, M.; Coleman, M.; Allemani, C.; Windsor-Shellard, B.; van Tongeren, M.; et al. Occupation and COVID-19 mortality in England: A national linked data study of 14.3 million adults. Occup. Environ. Med. 2021, 79, 433–441. Available online: https://oem.bmj.com/content/early/2021/12/26/oemed-2021-107818 (accessed on 9 June 2022). [CrossRef]
- Office for National Statistics. Coronavirus (COVID-19) Related Deaths by Occupation, England and Wales—Office for National Statistics (9 March and 28 December 2020). 2021. Available online: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/causesofdeath/datasets/coronaviruscovid19relateddeathsbyoccupationenglandandwales (accessed on 13 April 2021).
- Mallet, Y.; Pivette, M.; Revest, M.; Angot, E.; Valence, M.; Dupin, C.; Picard, N.; Brelivet, G.; Seyler, T.; Ballet, S.; et al. Identification of Workers at Increased Risk of Infection During a COVID-19 Outbreak in a Meat Processing Plant, France, May 2020. Food Environ. Virol. 2021, 13, 535–543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walshe, N.; Fennelly, M.; Hellebust, S.; Wenger, J.; Sodeau, J.; Prentice, M.; Grice, C.; Jordan, V.; Comerford, J.; Downey, V.; et al. Assessment of Environmental and Occupational Risk Factors for the Mitigation and Containment of a COVID-19 Outbreak in a Meat Processing Plant. Front. Public Health 2021, 9, 769238. Available online: https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpubh.2021.769238 (accessed on 9 June 2022). [CrossRef]
- The National COVID-19 Outbreak Monitoring Group. COVID-19 outbreaks in a transmission control scenario: Challenges posed by social and leisure activities, and for workers in vulnerable conditions, Spain, early summer 2020. Eurosurveillance 2020, 25, 2001545. Available online: https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.35.2001545 (accessed on 10 March 2021).
- Günther, T.; Czech-Sioli, M.; Indenbirken, D.; Robitaille, A.; Tenhaken, P.; Exner, M.; Ottinger, M.; Fischer, N.; Grundhoff, A.; Brinkmann, M.M. SARS-CoV-2 outbreak investigation in a German meat processing plant. EMBO Mol. Med. 2020, 12, e13296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kotsiou, O.S.; Pantazopoulos, I.; Papagiannis, D.; Fradelos, E.C.; Kanellopoulos, N.; Siachpazidou, D.; Kirgou, P.; Mouliou, D.S.; Kyritsis, A.; Kalantzis, G.; et al. Repeated Antigen-Based Rapid Diagnostic Testing for Estimating the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Prevalence from the Perspective of the Workers’ Vulnerability before and during the Lockdown. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Billingsley, S.; Brandén, M.; Aradhya, S.; Drefahl, S.; Andersson, G.; Mussino, E. COVID-19 mortality across occupations and secondary risks for elderly individuals in the household: A population register-based study. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 2022, 48, 52–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aday, S.; Aday, M.S. Impact of COVID-19 on the food supply chain. Food Qual. Saf. 2020, 4, 167–180. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakat, Z.; Bou-Mitri, C. COVID-19 and the food industry: Readiness assessment. Food Control 2021, 121, 107661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rizou, M.; Galanakis, I.M.; Aldawoud, T.M.; Galanakis, C.M. Safety of foods, food supply chain and environment within the COVID-19 pandemic. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 102, 293–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zuber, S.; Brüssow, H. COVID 19: Challenges for virologists in the food industry. Microb. Biotechnol. 2020, 13, 1689–1701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Anand, P.; Allen, H.; Ferrer, R.; Gold, N.; Martinez, R.M.G.; Kontopantelis, E.; Krause, M.; Vergunst, F. Work-related and Personal Predictors of COVID-19 Transmission. medRxiv 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chin, A.W.; Chu, J.T.; Perera, M.R.; Hui, K.P.; Yen, H.L.; Chan, M.C.; Peiris, M.; Poon, L.L. Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental conditions. Lancet Microbe 2020, 1, e10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hierarchy of Controls |NIOSH|CDC. 2021. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.html (accessed on 9 June 2022).
Study | Peer Reviewed? | Location | Summary and Study Design | Sub-Sector | Area of Focus |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Aday & Aday (2020) [28] | yes | Global | Literature review on the effects of COVID-19 on food production, processing, distribution and demand. | Food Processing | Risk factors and prevention |
Anand et al. (2020) [32] | Yes | USA and UK | Discussion paper—provides evidence for work and personal predictors of COVID-19 transmission. | Factories | Risk factors |
Bui et al. (2020) [7] | Yes | Utah, USA | Multiple sector study—analyses the racial and ethnic differences in COVID-19 cases and occupation. | Manufacturing; meat processing | Transmission and prevention |
Billingsley et al. (2021) [27] | Yes | Sweden | Sector-specific study—analyses mortality across occupations. | Meat packing | Transmission and mortality |
Chen et al. (2021a) [8] | Yes | California, USA | Sector-specific study. Estimates of excess mortality among Californians 18–65 years of age by occupational sector | Food and agricultural workers | Transmission |
Chen et al. (2021b) [16] | Pre-print | UK | Epidemiological surveillance data—Analysed Public Health England (PHE) HPZone data on COVID-19 outbreaks in workplaces between 18 May–12 October 2020. | Manufacturers and packers of food | Transmission |
Dyal et al. (2020) [9] | Yes | USA | Sector-specific study. Reports of the number of COVID-19 cases across meat and poultry facilities. | Meat and Poultry processing | Transmission |
Gunther et al. (2020) [25] | Yes | Germany | Sector-specific study. Describe a multifactorial investigation of the COVID-19 outbreak in a large meat processing complex in Germany. | Meat processing plants | Transmission |
Herstein et al. (2021) [10] | Yes | Nebraska, USA | Sector-specific study—Details demographics and outcomes of severe COVID-19 cases among workers in Nebraska meat processing facilities. | Meat processing | Transmission and prevention |
Hiironen et al. (2020) [17] | Pre-print | UK | Retrospective study—analyses occupational exposures which were associated with COVID-19 between Aug–Oct 2020. | Food production workers | Transmission and risk factors |
House et al. (2021) [11] | Yes | USA | Retrospective cohort study—characterises the association between meat packing plant exposure and clinical outcomes amongst emergency department patients with COVID-19. | Meatpacking | Transmission and prevention |
Kotsiou et al. (2021) [26] | Yes | Greece | Sector-specific study. Investigates the prevalence of COVID-19 changes amongst different occupations during lockdown. | Catering and food sector | Transmission and prevention |
Mallet et al. (2021) [22] | Yes | France | Sector-specific study. Analyses risk factors and level of transmission for a COVID-19 cluster detected in a French processing plant. | Meat processing plant | Transmission and risk factors |
Moore et al. (2021) [18] | Yes | UK | Sector-specific study. Responds to the TUC’s calls for a strengthened health and safety agenda, improved safety guidance and tougher regulatory actions in the light of COVID-19. | Food and drinks sector | Transmission, prevention and risk |
Mutambudzi et al. (2020) [19] | Yes | UK | Multiple sector study—investigates severe COVID-19 risk by occupational group. | Process, plant and machine operatives | Transmission |
Nakat and Bou-Mitri (2021) [29] | Yes | Global | Literature review—aims at assembling all current knowledge about COVID-19 and its impact on the food industry. | Food sector | Prevention |
Nafilyan et al. (2021) [20] | Yes | England, UK | Multiple sector study—analyses occupational and COVID-19 mortality in England. | Food production | Mortality |
Office for National Statistics (2021) [21] | Yes | UK | Epidemiological surveillance data—reports on COVID-19 related mortality rates within different occupations between March and December 2020. | Various | Transmission/cases/mortality |
Rizou et al. (2020) [30] | Yes | Global | Literature review—summarises possible transmission routes of COVID-19 through the food supply chain. | Food sector as whole | Transmission and prevention |
Rubenstein et al. (2020) [12] | Yes | Maryland, USA | Sector-specific study. Investigates the factors contributing to the transmission of COVID-19 within foreign-born workers. | Catering and food sector | Transmission and prevention |
Steinberg et al. (2020) [13] | Yes | South Dakota, USA | Sector-specific study. Investigates COVID-19 outbreak among employees at a meat processing facility. | Meat processing plant | Transmission |
The national COVID-19 outbreak monitoring group (2020) [24] | Yes | Spain | Epidemiological surveillance data—reports on outbreaks notified to the national level in Spain during the summer of 2020. | Meat processing plant | Transmission |
Vanderwaal et al. (2021) [14] | Yes | USA | Sector-specific study—Examined PCR testing and modelled transmission at pork plants in the US. | Pork processing plants | Transmission and prevention |
Walshe et al. (2021) [23] | Yes | Ireland | Sector-specific study. Provides retrospective outbreak investigation in a meat processing plant and a description of the measures taken to prevent or contain further outbreaks | Meat processing plant | Transmission and Prevention |
Waltenburg et al. (2021) [15] | Yes | USA | Sector-specific study. Describes COVID-19 among US food manufacturing and agriculture workers. | Food processing, manufacturing and agriculture workplaces | Transmission and prevention |
Zuber & Brussow (2020) [31] | Yes | Global | Literature review addressing the presence and persistence of COVID-19 in the food environment. | Food sector as a whole | Prevention |
Study | Sector Facility | COVID-19 Related Cases or Outbreaks | COVID-19–Related Deaths | Time Period | Other |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Billingsley et al. [27] | Food packing | n/a | 0 | 12 March 2020–23 February 2021 | n/a |
Bui et al. [7] | Manufacturing sector and wholesale trade | Manufacturing—467 (34%) Wholesale trade—200 (14%) | Manufacturing—12 (3%) Wholesale trade—3 (2%) | 6 March 2020–5 June 2020 | n/a |
Chen et al. (a) [8] | Food and Agriculture | n/a | 1050 (897–1204) (excess deaths) | March 2020–October 2020 | n/a |
Chen et al. (b) [16] | Manufacturers and packers of Food | 117/1317 outbreaks (9%) 6998 total workplaces in this category | n/a | 18 May 2020–12 October 2020 | Outbreak rate: 1672/100,000 |
Dyal et al. [9] | Meat and Poultry processing | 4913 (3.0%) (Total across 19 states) | 20 (0.4%) (Total across 19 states) | April 2020 | n/a |
Herstein et al. [10] | Meat processing | 5002 of 26,000 (0.192%) | n/a | April 2021 | n/a |
Hiironen et al. [17] | Food production and agriculture | — | n/a | late August, late September, and late October 2020 | Odds ratio 1.03 (95% CI 0.60 to 1.78) comparing infection in food production and agriculture compared to other workers. |
House et al. [11] | Meat packing | Out of 582 patients in the ED, 74% of meat packing plant exposed patients tested positive for COVID-19, while 12% of those without a meat packing plant exposure tested positive. | n/a | March 2020–May 2020 | n/a |
Kotsiou et al. [26] | Food production sector | (pre lockdown) 17 of 48 (35%) (during lockdown) 1 out of 17 (5%) | n/a | 2 sets–one before lockdown (5–6 November 2020) and one month after the lockdown initiation (30 November–1 December 2020) | n/a |
Mallet et al. [22] | Meat processing plant | 140 cases among 1347 workers, 87.5% of which were tested | 0 | May 2020 | n/a |
Mutambudzi et al. [19] | Process, plant and machine operatives | 17 out of 4775 (0.4%) with “severe” COVID-19 | n/a | 16 March 2020–26 July 2020 | Relative risk 1.12 (95% CI 0.52 to 2.42) comparing risk of severe COVID-19 for food workers compared to non-essential workers. |
Nafilyan et al. [20] | Food sector | n/a | n/a | 24 January 2020–28 December 2020 | Hazard ratio 1.15 [95% CI 0.89 to 1.50] (men) 1.15 [0.750–1.77] (women) These compare mortality in food sector to non-essential workers and are adjusted for multiple demographic factors. |
Office for National Statistics [21] | Process, plant and machine operatives | n/a | 827 deaths for men (52.8 deaths per 100,000 males) 57 deaths for women (33.8 per 100,000 ) | March 2020–December 2020 | n/a |
Steinberg et al. [13] | Meat processing plant | 929 cases among 3635 workers (25.95%) | n/a | March 2020–April 2020 | n/a |
The national COVID-19 outbreak monitoring group [24] | Slaughterhouses/meat plants and Fruit and Vegetable sector | Slaughterhouses/meat plants—767 cases Fruit and Vegetable sector—500 cases (total number of workers not available) | n/a | May 2020 | n/a |
Walshe et al. [23] | Meat processing plant | 107 cases among 290 workers | n/a | Mid to late 2020 | n/a |
Waltenburg et al. [15] | Food manufacturing and agriculture workplaces | 8978 cases among workers in 742 food manufacturing and agriculture workplaces in 30 states Among 15 states that reported worker populations in affected workplaces, 8.2% of 30,609 workers received COVID-19 diagnoses | 55 (0.6%) | 1 March 2020–31 May 2020 | n/a |
VanderWaal et al. [14] | Pork-processing plants | Cumulative incidence of clinical (PCR-confirmed) disease plateaued at ~2.5% to 25% across the three plants studied. | March 2020–August 2020 | n/a |
Study | Risk Factor Identified | Findings |
---|---|---|
Aday & Aday [28] | Transport Income/sick pay Environmental factors |
|
Anand et al. [32] | Transport |
|
Bui et al. [7] | Ethnicity |
|
Chen et al. (a) [8] | Ethnicity |
|
Rubenstein et al. [12] | Ethnicity Transport |
|
Kotsiou et al. [26] | Ethnicity |
|
Mallet et al. [22] | Ethnicity Transport Shared-accommodation Temporary-workers |
|
Mutambudzi et al. [19] | Ethnicity |
|
Moore et al. [18] | Income/sick pay |
|
Günther et al. [25] | Environmental factors |
|
Herstein et al. [10] | Ethnicity |
|
House et al. [11] | Ethnicity |
|
Steinberg et al. [13] | Environmental factors Contract workers |
|
Walshe et al. [23] | Environmental factors |
|
Waltenburg et al. [15] | Ethnicity |
|
Risk Mitigation | Findings |
---|---|
Testing/screening |
|
Ventilation |
|
Sick pay |
|
Social distancing |
|
Adequate hygiene practices |
|
PPE |
|
Other |
|
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Hosseini, P.; Mueller, W.; Rhodes, S.; Pembrey, L.; van Tongeren, M.; Pearce, N.; Loh, M.; Fletcher, T. Transmission and Control of SARS-CoV-2 in the Food Production Sector: A Rapid Narrative Review of the Literature. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 12104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912104
Hosseini P, Mueller W, Rhodes S, Pembrey L, van Tongeren M, Pearce N, Loh M, Fletcher T. Transmission and Control of SARS-CoV-2 in the Food Production Sector: A Rapid Narrative Review of the Literature. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):12104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912104
Chicago/Turabian StyleHosseini, Paniz, William Mueller, Sarah Rhodes, Lucy Pembrey, Martie van Tongeren, Neil Pearce, Miranda Loh, and Tony Fletcher. 2022. "Transmission and Control of SARS-CoV-2 in the Food Production Sector: A Rapid Narrative Review of the Literature" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 12104. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912104