Association between Hope for the Future and Academic Performance in Adolescents: Results from the K-CHILD Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sampling Method
2.2. Measurements
2.2.1. Hope for the Future
2.2.2. Self-Related Academic Performance
2.2.3. Time Usage
2.2.4. Resilience
2.2.5. Covariates
2.2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Distribution of Characteristics
3.2. Propensity Score Matching
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Jonsson, U.; Goodman, A.; von Knorring, A.L.; von Knorring, L.; Koupil, I. School performance and hospital admission due to unipolar depression: A three-generational study of social causation and social selection. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2012, 47, 1695–1706. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Verboom, C.E.; Sijtsema, J.J.; Verhulst, F.C.; Penninx, B.W.; Ormel, J. Longitudinal associations between depressive problems, academic performance, and social functioning in adolescent boys and girls. Dev. Psychol. 2014, 50, 247–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cox, R.G.; Zhang, L.; Johnson, W.D.; Bender, D.R. Academic Performance and Substance Use: Findings From a State Survey of Public High School Students. J. Sch. Health 2007, 77, 109–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Maguin, E.; Loeber, R. Academic Performance and Delinquency. Crime Justice 1996, 20, 145–264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsuzuki, M. Dynamic changing process of hope in early adolescence: Analysis of individual differences during the transition from elementary school to junior high school1. Jpn. Psychol. Res. 2012, 54, 253–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhao, J.; Li, R.; Ma, J.; Zhang, W. Longitudinal relations between future planning and adolescents’ academic achievement in China. J. Adolesc. 2019, 75, 73–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hejazi, E.; Moghadam, A.; Naghsh, Z.; Tarkhan, R.A. The future orientation of Iranian adolescents girl students and their academic achievement. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2011, 15, 2441–2444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wrzesniewski, A.; Schwartz, B.; Cong, X.; Kane, M.; Omar, A.; Kolditz, T. Multiple types of motives don’t multiply the motivation of West Point cadets. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 10990–10995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leone, C.M.; Richards, H. Classwork and homework in early adolescence: The ecology of achievement. J. Youth Adolesc. 1989, 18, 531–548. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anand, V. A Study of Time Management: The Correlation between Video Game Usage and Academic Performance Markers. CyberPsychol. Behav. 2007, 10, 552–559. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gang, D.; Hou-Tiao, L. The Relationship of Adolescents’ Future Time Perspective and Academic Achievement:The Mediation Effect of Time Management Disposition. J. Psychol. Sci. 2017, 40, 96–102. [Google Scholar]
- Rodríguez-Fernández, A.; Ramos-Díaz, E.; Axpe-Saez, I. The Role of Resilience and Psychological Well-Being in School Engagement and Perceived Academic Performance: An Exploratory Model to Improve Academic Achievement. Health Acad. Achiev. 2018, 18, 159–176. [Google Scholar]
- Cui, Z.; Oshri, A.; Liu, S.; Smith, E.P.; Kogan, S.M. Child Maltreatment and Resilience: The Promotive and Protective Role of Future Orientation. J. Youth Adolesc. 2020, 49, 2075–2089. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, E.; Miller, G.E.; Lachman, M.E.; Gruenewald, T.L.; Seeman, T.E. Protective factors for adults from low-childhood socioeconomic circumstances: The benefits of shift-and-persist for allostatic load. Psychosom. Med. 2012, 74, 178–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Poole, M.E.; Cooney, G.H. Orientations to the future: A comparison of adolescents in Australia and Singapore. J. Youth Adolesc. 1987, 16, 129–151. [Google Scholar]
- Rosenbaum, P.R.; Rubin, D.B. The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika 1983, 70, 41–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Doi, S.; Fujiwara, T.; Isumi, A. Association between maternal adverse childhood experiences and child’s self-rated academic performance: Results from the K-CHILD study. Child Abus. Negl. 2020, 104, 104478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Council on Communications and Media; Strasburger, V.C.; Hogan, M.J.; Mulligan, D.A.; Ameenuddin, N.; Christakis, D.A.; Cross, C.; Fagbuyi, D.B.; Hill, D.L.; Levine, A.E.; et al. Children, Adolescents, and the Media. Pediatrics 2013, 132, 958–961. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan. Promotion of Reading Books among Children Tokyo; Ministry of Education Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan: Tokyo, Japan, 2022; Available online: https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/sports/dokusyo/hourei/cont_001/001.htm (accessed on 13 September 2022).
- Doi, S.; Fujiwara, T.; Ochi, M.; Isumi, A.; Kato, T. Association of sleep habits with behavior problems and resilience of 6- to 7-year-old children: Results from the A-CHILD study. Sleep Med. 2018, 45, 62–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Furukawa, T.A.; Kawakami, N.; Saitoh, M.; Ono, Y.; Nakane, Y.; Nakamura, Y.; Tachimori, H.; Iwata, N.; Uda, H.; Nakane, H.; et al. The performance of the Japanese version of the K6 and K10 in the World Mental Health Survey Japan. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 2008, 17, 152–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sato, H.; Arai, K. The investigation of factor structure and normative data for Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children (DSRS) Japanese version. Bull. Tsukuba Dev. Clin. Psychol. 2002, 14, 85–91. [Google Scholar]
- Nagai, S. Investigation of the factor structure model and normative data for Depression Self-Rating Scale for Children (DSRS) among junior high-school students. Jpn. J. Res. Emot. 2008, 16, 133–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Webley, P.; Nyhus, E.K. Parents’ influence on children’s future orientation and saving. J. Econ. Psychol. 2006, 27, 140–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hill, N.E.; Castellino, D.R.; Lansford, J.E.; Nowlin, P.; Dodge, K.A.; Bates, J.E.; Pettit, G.S. Parent Academic Involvement as Related to School Behavior, Achievement, and Aspirations: Demographic Variations Across Adolescence. Child Dev. 2004, 75, 1491–1509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Masa, R.; Bates, C.; Chowa, G. Direct and Indirect Associations of Food Insecurity, Adolescent–Parent Relationship, and Adolescent Future Orientation. J. Fam. Issues 2021, 42, 1285–1307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gardner Neblett, N.; Schnabel Cortina, K. Adolescents’ thoughts about parents’ jobs and their importance for adolescents’ future orientation. J. Adolesc. 2006, 29, 795–811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ragozin, A.S.; Basham, R.B.; Crnic, K.A.; Greenberg, M.T.; Robinson, N.M. Effects of maternal age on parenting role. Dev. Psychol. 1982, 18, 627–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finley, G.E. Parental Age and Parenting Quality as Perceived by Late Adolescents. J. Genet. Psychol. 1998, 159, 505–506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chainey, C.; Burke, K.; Haynes, M. Does Parenting Moderate the Association between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adolescents’ Future Orientation? J. Child Fam. Stud. 2022, 31, 2359–2375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pulkkinen, L. Home atmosphere and adolescent future orientation. Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 1990, 5, 33–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Broomfield, K.A. Mechanisms through Which Supportive Adult Relationships and Future Orientation Contribute to Positive Outcomes in Low-Income African-American Adolescents. Ph.D. Thesis, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA, 2007; p. 33. [Google Scholar]
- Nurmi, J.-E. How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future orientation and planning. Dev. Rev. 1991, 11, 1–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seginer, R.; Mahajna, S. Future orientation links perceived parenting and academic achievement: Gender differences among Muslim adolescents in Israel. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2018, 67, 197–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dassen, F.C.M.; Houben, K.; Jansen, A. Time orientation and eating behavior: Unhealthy eaters consider immediate consequences, while healthy eaters focus on future health. Appetite 2015, 91, 13–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kim, D.H.; Bassett, S.M.; So, S.; Voisin, D.R. Family stress and youth mental health problems: Self-efficacy and future orientation mediation. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 2019, 89, 125–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zhang, J.; Zhao, G.; Li, X.; Hong, Y.; Fang, X.; Barnett, D.; Lin, X.; Zhao, J.; Zhang, L. Positive future orientation as a mediator between traumatic events and mental health among children affected by HIV/AIDS in rural China. AIDS Care 2009, 21, 1508–1516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Threlfall, J.M.; Auslander, W.; Gerke, D.; McGinnis, H.; Myers Tlapek, S. Mental Health and School Functioning for Girls in the Child Welfare System: The Mediating Role of Future Orientation and School Engagement. Sch. Ment. Health 2017, 9, 194–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gerson, A.C.; Perlman, D. Loneliness and expressive communication. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 1979, 88, 258–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Seginer, R.; Lilach, E. How adolescents construct their future: The effect of loneliness on future orientation. J. Adolesc. 2004, 27, 625–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- VanderWeele, T.J.; Mathur, M.B.; Chen, Y. Outcome-Wide Longitudinal Designs for Causal Inference: A New Template for Empirical Studies. Stat. Sci. 2020, 35, 437–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- O’Neill, E.; Clarke, P.; Fido, D.; Vione, K.C. The Role of Future Time Perspective, Body Awareness, and Social Connectedness in the Relationship Between Self-efficacy and Resilience. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 2022, 20, 1171–1181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fujiwara, T. Impact of Adverse Childhood Experience on Physical and Mental Health: A life-course epidemiology perspective. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Before PS Matching | After PS Matching | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hope for the Future | Hope for Future | ||||||||||||
Yes (n = 2283; 65.7%) | No (n = 1194; 34.3%) | p Value | Bias (%) | Yes (n = 1105) | No (n = 1105) | p Value | Bias (%) | ||||||
n | % | n | % | n | % | n | % | ||||||
Child’s sex | 0.003 | 0.625 | |||||||||||
boy | 1009 | 44.2 | 592 | 49.6 | 557 | 50.4 | 538 | 48.7 | |||||
girl | 1220 | 53.4 | 566 | 47.4 | 12.1 | 521 | 47.2 | 535 | 48.4 | −2.5 | |||
Missing | 54 | 2.4 | 36 | 3.0 | −4.0 | 27 | 2.4 | 32 | 2.9 | −2.8 | |||
Child’s height | 0.137 | 0.882 | |||||||||||
<150 | 216 | 9.5 | 90 | 7.5 | 72 | 6.5 | 83 | 7.5 | |||||
150–<160 | 935 | 41.0 | 472 | 39.5 | 2.9 | 436 | 39.5 | 440 | 39.8 | −0.7 | |||
160–<170 | 752 | 32.9 | 422 | 35.3 | −5.1 | 409 | 37.0 | 394 | 35.7 | 2.9 | |||
170+ | 219 | 9.6 | 110 | 9.2 | 1.3 | 99 | 9.0 | 102 | 9.2 | −0.9 | |||
Missing | 161 | 7.1 | 100 | 8.4 | −5.0 | 89 | 8.1 | 86 | 7.8 | 1.0 | |||
Child’s weight | 0.267 | 0.996 | |||||||||||
<40 | 178 | 7.8 | 100 | 8.4 | 86 | 7.8 | 91 | 8.2 | |||||
40–<50 | 984 | 43.1 | 505 | 42.3 | 1.6 | 471 | 42.6 | 473 | 42.8 | −0.4 | |||
50–<60 | 617 | 27.0 | 340 | 28.5 | −3.2 | 320 | 29.0 | 316 | 28.6 | 0.8 | |||
60+ | 252 | 11.0 | 106 | 8.9 | 7.2 | 100 | 9.1 | 99 | 9.0 | 0.3 | |||
Missing | 252 | 11.0 | 143 | 12.0 | −2.9 | 128 | 11.6 | 126 | 11.4 | 0.6 | |||
Maternal age | 0.518 | 0.918 | |||||||||||
<40 | 379 | 16.6 | 188 | 15.8 | 175 | 15.8 | 175 | 15.8 | |||||
40–<50 | 1526 | 66.8 | 785 | 65.8 | 2.3 | 735 | 66.5 | 733 | 66.3 | 0.4 | |||
50+ | 229 | 10.0 | 132 | 11.1 | −3.3 | 112 | 10.1 | 120 | 10.9 | −2.4 | |||
Missing | 149 | 6.5 | 89 | 7.5 | −3.6 | 83 | 7.5 | 77 | 7.0 | 2.1 | |||
Paternal age | 0.239 | 0.994 | |||||||||||
<40 | 215 | 9.4 | 109 | 9.1 | 101 | 9.1 | 99 | 9.0 | |||||
40–<50 | 1224 | 53.6 | 640 | 53.6 | 0 | 600 | 54.3 | 596 | 53.9 | 0.7 | |||
50+ | 405 | 17.7 | 240 | 20.1 | −6.0 | 214 | 19.4 | 218 | 19.7 | −0.9 | |||
Missing | 439 | 19.2 | 205 | 17.2 | 5.3 | 190 | 17.2 | 192 | 17.4 | −0.5 | |||
Maternal education | 0.385 | 0.943 | |||||||||||
High school or less | 826 | 36.2 | 402 | 33.7 | 375 | 33.9 | 372 | 33.7 | |||||
Some college | 972 | 42.6 | 524 | 43.9 | −2.6 | 475 | 43.0 | 490 | 44.3 | −2.7 | |||
College or more | 335 | 14.7 | 178 | 14.9 | −0.7 | 165 | 14.9 | 162 | 14.7 | 0.8 | |||
Other/Unknown | 4 | 0.2 | 5 | 0.4 | −4.5 | 3 | 0.3 | 3 | 0.3 | 0 | |||
Missing | 146 | 6.4 | 85 | 7.1 | −2.9 | 87 | 7.9 | 78 | 7.1 | 3.2 | |||
Paternal education | 0.300 | 0.904 | |||||||||||
High school or less | 921 | 40.3 | 486 | 40.7 | 425 | 38.5 | 441 | 39.9 | |||||
Some college | 360 | 15.8 | 197 | 16.5 | −2.0 | 197 | 17.8 | 183 | 16.6 | 3.4 | |||
College or more | 559 | 24.5 | 311 | 26.1 | −3.6 | 288 | 26.1 | 288 | 26.1 | 0 | |||
Other/Unknown | 12 | 0.5 | 3 | 0.3 | 4.4 | 2 | 0.2 | 3 | 0.3 | −1.5 | |||
Missing | 431 | 18.9 | 197 | 16.5 | 6.2 | 193 | 17.5 | 190 | 17.2 | 0.7 | |||
Maternal job | 0.259 | 0.951 | |||||||||||
Full-time | 837 | 36.7 | 418 | 35.0 | 401 | 35.6 | 387 | 34.4 | |||||
Part-time | 805 | 35.3 | 416 | 34.8 | 0.9 | 396 | 35.2 | 404 | 35.9 | −2.3 | |||
Others | 266 | 11.7 | 128 | 10.7 | 3.0 | 118 | 10.5 | 115 | 10.2 | 2.0 | |||
Not working | 243 | 10.6 | 150 | 12.6 | −6.0 | 138 | 12.3 | 140 | 12.4 | 0.8 | |||
Missing | 132 | 5.8 | 82 | 6.9 | −4.5 | 73 | 6.5 | 80 | 7.1 | 3.7 | |||
Paternal job | 0.065 | 0.998 | |||||||||||
Full-time | 1395 | 61.1 | 730 | 61.1 | 700 | 62.2 | 702 | 62.3 | |||||
Part-time | 74 | 3.2 | 43 | 3.6 | −2.0 | 40 | 3.6 | 37 | 3.3 | −1.0 | |||
Others | 358 | 15.7 | 207 | 17.3 | −4.5 | 186 | 16.5 | 186 | 16.5 | 2.7 | |||
Not working | 24 | 1.1 | 22 | 1.8 | −6.6 | 14 | 1.2 | 14 | 1.2 | −3.0 | |||
Missing | 432 | 18.9 | 192 | 16.1 | 7.5 | 186 | 16.5 | 187 | 16.6 | 0.7 | |||
Marital states | 0.089 | 0.941 | |||||||||||
Married | 1829 | 80.1 | 988 | 82.8 | 905 | 81.9 | 910 | 82.4 | |||||
Unmarried | 429 | 18.8 | 199 | 16.7 | 5.6 | 192 | 17.4 | 188 | 17.0 | 0.9 | |||
Missing | 25 | 1.1 | 7 | 0.6 | 5.6 | 8 | 0.7 | 7 | 0.6 | 1.0 | |||
Annual household income (JPY) | 0.340 | 0.926 | |||||||||||
<3 million | 448 | 19.6 | 209 | 17.5 | 179 | 16.2 | 190 | 17.2 | |||||
3 million–<6 million | 701 | 30.7 | 364 | 30.5 | 0.5 | 338 | 30.6 | 333 | 30.1 | 1.0 | |||
6 million+ | 716 | 31.4 | 385 | 32.2 | −1.9 | 361 | 32.7 | 362 | 32.8 | −0.2 | |||
Unknown | 99 | 4.3 | 46 | 3.9 | 2.4 | 40 | 3.6 | 44 | 4.0 | −1.8 | |||
Missing | 319 | 14.0 | 190 | 15.9 | −5.4 | 187 | 16.9 | 176 | 15.9 | 2.8 | |||
Public assistance | 0.207 | 0.926 | |||||||||||
No | 1388 | 60.8 | 761 | 63.7 | 712 | 63.2 | 717 | 63.7 | |||||
Yes | 16 | 0.7 | 6 | 0.5 | 2.6 | 5 | 0.4 | 6 | 0.5 | −1.2 | |||
Missing | 879 | 38.5 | 427 | 35.8 | 5.7 | 409 | 36.3 | 403 | 35.8 | −2.1 | |||
Economic difficulties | 0.387 | 0.843 | |||||||||||
No | 1908 | 83.6 | 990 | 82.9 | 928 | 84.0 | 918 | 83.1 | |||||
Yes | 286 | 12.5 | 165 | 13.8 | −3.8 | 144 | 13.0 | 153 | 13.9 | −2.4 | |||
Missing | 89 | 3.9 | 39 | 3.3 | 3.4 | 33 | 3.0 | 34 | 3.1 | −0.5 | |||
Lack of daily necessities for children | 0.214 | 0.979 | |||||||||||
No | 1341 | 58.7 | 698 | 58.5 | 655 | 59.3 | 651 | 58.9 | |||||
Yes | 515 | 22.6 | 295 | 24.7 | −5.1 | 260 | 23.5 | 273 | 23.9 | −0.9 | |||
Missing | 427 | 18.7 | 201 | 16.8 | 4.9 | 190 | 17.2 | 187 | 17.2 | 0.0 | |||
Lack of daily necessities | 0.313 | 0.925 | |||||||||||
No | 1419 | 62.2 | 760 | 63.7 | 707 | 64.0 | 702 | 63.5 | |||||
Yes | 396 | 17.4 | 215 | 18.0 | −1.7 | 187 | 16.9 | 194 | 17.6 | −1.7 | |||
Missing | 468 | 20.5 | 219 | 18.3 | 5.5 | 211 | 19.1 | 209 | 18.9 | 0.5 | |||
Caregiver’s physical health | 0.120 | 0.947 | |||||||||||
Good | 1299 | 56.9 | 693 | 58.0 | 637 | 57.7 | 644 | 58.3 | |||||
Average | 590 | 25.8 | 315 | 26.4 | −1.2 | 299 | 27.1 | 288 | 26.1 | 2.3 | |||
Poor | 218 | 9.6 | 120 | 10.1 | −1.7 | 105 | 9.5 | 110 | 10.0 | −1.5 | |||
Missing | 176 | 7.7 | 66 | 5.5 | 8.8 | 64 | 5.8 | 63 | 5.7 | 0.4 | |||
Caregiver’s mental health (K6) | 0.506 | 0.935 | |||||||||||
<5 | 1538 | 67.4 | 834 | 69.9 | 776 | 70.2 | 767 | 69.4 | |||||
5–<13 | 548 | 24.0 | 265 | 265.0 | 4.3 | 242 | 21.9 | 251 | 22.7 | −1.9 | |||
13+ | 116 | 5.1 | 54 | 54.0 | 2.6 | 46 | 4.2 | 49 | 4.4 | −1.3 | |||
Missing | 81 | 3.6 | 41 | 41.0 | 0.6 | 41 | 3.7 | 38 | 3.4 | 1.5 | |||
Maternal smoking habit | 0.476 | 0.951 | |||||||||||
Smoking now | 337 | 14.8 | 155 | 13.0 | 155 | 14.0 | 152 | 13.8 | |||||
Smoking past | 332 | 14.5 | 187 | 15.7 | −3.1 | 161 | 14.6 | 180 | 15.4 | −2.3 | |||
No history | 1470 | 64.4 | 774 | 64.8 | −0.9 | 720 | 65.2 | 718 | 64.4 | 1.5 | |||
Missing | 144 | 6.3 | 78 | 6.5 | −0.9 | 69 | 6.2 | 71 | 6.4 | −0.7 | |||
Paternal smoking habit | 0.103 | 0.960 | |||||||||||
Smoking now | 742 | 32.5 | 385 | 32.2 | 353 | 32.0 | 363 | 32.9 | |||||
Smoking past | 613 | 26.9 | 361 | 30.2 | −7.5 | 330 | 29.9 | 320 | 29.0 | 2.0 | |||
No history | 505 | 22.1 | 257 | 21.5 | 1.4 | 239 | 21.6 | 240 | 21.7 | −0.2 | |||
Missing | 423 | 18.5 | 191 | 16.0 | 6.7 | 183 | 16.6 | 182 | 16.5 | 0.2 | |||
Living with maternal grandmother | 0.112 | 0.686 | |||||||||||
No | 2085 | 91.3 | 1109 | 92.9 | 1020 | 92.3 | 1025 | 92.8 | |||||
Yes | 198 | 8.7 | 85 | 7.1 | 5.8 | 85 | 7.7 | 80 | 7.2 | 1.7 | |||
Living with maternal grandfather | 0.131 | 0.607 | |||||||||||
No | 2150 | 94.2 | 1139 | 95.4 | 1058 | 95.8 | 1053 | 95.3 | |||||
Yes | 133 | 5.8 | 55 | 4.6 | 5.5 | 47 | 4.3 | 52 | 4.7 | −2.0 | |||
Living with paternal grandmother | 0.095 | 0.606 | |||||||||||
No | 2029 | 88.9 | 1083 | 90.7 | 1007 | 91.1 | 1000 | 90.5 | |||||
Yes | 254 | 11.1 | 111 | 9.3 | 6.0 | 98 | 8.9 | 105 | 9.5 | −2.1 | |||
Living with paternal grandfather | 0.535 | 0.931 | |||||||||||
No | 2127 | 93.2 | 1119 | 93.7 | 1034 | 93.6 | 1035 | 93.7 | |||||
Yes | 156 | 6.8 | 75 | 6.3 | 2.2 | 71 | 6.4 | 70 | 6.3 | 0.4 | |||
Older brother | 0.242 | 0.847 | |||||||||||
No | 1709 | 74.9 | 872 | 73.0 | 810 | 73.3 | 814 | 73.7 | |||||
Yes | 574 | 25.1 | 322 | 27.0 | −4.2 | 295 | 26.7 | 291 | 26.3 | 0.8 | |||
Older sister | 0.102 | 0.731 | |||||||||||
No | 1764 | 77.3 | 893 | 74.8 | 826 | 74.8 | 833 | 75.4 | |||||
Yes | 519 | 22.7 | 301 | 25.2 | −5.8 | 279 | 25.3 | 272 | 24.6 | 1.5 | |||
Younger brother | 0.103 | 0.962 | |||||||||||
No | 1615 | 70.7 | 876 | 73.4 | 807 | 73.0 | 806 | 72.9 | |||||
Yes | 668 | 29.3 | 318 | 26.6 | 5.9 | 298 | 27.0 | 299 | 27.1 | −0.2 | |||
Younger sister | 0.758 | 0.962 | |||||||||||
No | 1667 | 73.0 | 866 | 72.5 | 801 | 72.5 | 800 | 72.4 | |||||
Yes | 616 | 27.0 | 328 | 27.5 | −1.1 | 304 | 27.5 | 305 | 27.6 | −0.2 | |||
Child’s depression (DSRS) | <0.001 | 0.868 | |||||||||||
No (0–15) | 2018 | 88.4 | 973 | 81.5 | 919 | 83.2 | 928 | 84.0 | |||||
Yes (16+) | 230 | 10.1 | 209 | 17.5 | −21.7 | 176 | 15.9 | 168 | 15.2 | 2.1 | |||
Missing | 35 | 1.5 | 12 | 1.0 | 4.7 | 10 | 0.9 | 9 | 0.8 | 0.8 |
Before PS Matching | After PS Matching | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hope for the Future | n (%) | n (%) | ||
Time of playing games | Yes | Less than 1 h/day (=0) | 1602 (70.2) | 767 (69.4) |
More than 1 h/day (=1) | 619 (27.1) | 315 (28.5) | ||
Missing | 62 (2.7) | 23 (2.1) | ||
No | Less than 1 h/day (=0) | 766 (64.1) | 720 (65.2) | |
More than 1 h/day (=1) | 396 (33.2) | 357 (32.3) | ||
Missing | 32 (2.7) | 28 (2.5) | ||
Time to watch TV or DVD | Yes | Less than 1 h/day (=0) | 679 (29.7) | 334 (30.2) |
More than 1 h/day (=1) | 1538 (67.4) | 742 (67.1) | ||
Missing | 66 (2.9) | 29 (2.6) | ||
No | Less than 1 h/day (=0) | 382 (32.0) | 352 (31.9) | |
More than 1 h/day (=1) | 774 (64.8) | 719 (65.1) | ||
Missing | 38 (3.2) | 34 (3.1) | ||
Reading time | Yes | Almost never (=0) | 545 (23.9) | 266 (24.1) |
More than 1day/ week (=1) | 1660 (72.7) | 807 (73.0) | ||
Missing | 78 (3.42) | 32 (2.9) | ||
No | Almost never (=0) | 380 (31.8) | 348 (31.5) | |
More than 1day/week (=1) | 772 (64.7) | 719 (65.1) | ||
Missing | 42 (3.5) | 38 (3.4) | ||
Studying time except in class | Yes | Almost never (=0) | 146 (6.4) | 65 (5.9) |
More than 1day/week (=1) | 2089 (61.5) | 1034 (93.6) | ||
Missing | 48 (2.1) | 6 (0.5) | ||
No | Almost never (=0) | 128 (10.7) | 117 (10.6) | |
More than 1day/week (=1) | 1045 (87.5) | 981 (88.8) | ||
Missing | 21 (1.8) | 7 (0.6) |
Before PS Matching | After PS Matching | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Model | Adjusted Model | |||||||||||
Mean (SD) | β | 95%CI | p Value | β | 95%CI | p Value | Mean (SD) | β | 95%CI | p Value | ||
Self-rated academic performance in class | Yes | 3.03 (1.27) | 0.21 | 0.12 to 0.30 | <0.001 | 0.19 | 0.10 to 0.28 | <0.001 | 3.02 (1.28) | 0.21 | 0.10 to 0.32 | <0.001 |
No | 2.82 (1.28) | 2.81 (1.28) | ||||||||||
Child’s resilience (CRCS total score) | Yes | 18.8 (5.58) | 1.77 | 1.35 to 2.19 | <0.001 | 1.51 | 1.11 to 1.91 | <0.001 | 19.1 (5.82) | 1.48 | 0.98 to 1.98 | <0.001 |
No | 20.6 (5.82) | 20.8 (6.01) |
Before PS Matching | After PS Matching | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crude Model | Adjusted Model | ||||||||
OR | 95%CI | p Value | OR | 95%CI | p Value | OR | 95%CI | p Value | |
Time of playing games | 0.75 | 0.64 to 0.87 | <0.001 | 0.81 | 0.69 to 0.97 | 0.018 | 0.81 | 0.67 to 0.98 | 0.028 |
Time to watch TV or DVDs | 1.12 | 0.96 to 1.30 | 0.15 | 1.06 | 0.91 to 1.25 | 0.449 | 1.05 | 0.87 to 1.26 | 0.61 |
Reading books | 1.50 | 1.28 to 1.75 | <0.001 | 1.50 | 1.27 to 1.77 | <0.001 | 1.45 | 1.19 to 1.75 | <0.001 |
Studying except in class | 11.7 | 7.93 to 15.5 | <0.001 | 1.65 | 1.26 to 2.14 | <0.001 | 1.89 | 1.37 to 2.61 | <0.001 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Kashiwabara, T.; Fujiwara, T.; Doi, S.; Yamaoka, Y. Association between Hope for the Future and Academic Performance in Adolescents: Results from the K-CHILD Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11890. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911890
Kashiwabara T, Fujiwara T, Doi S, Yamaoka Y. Association between Hope for the Future and Academic Performance in Adolescents: Results from the K-CHILD Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022; 19(19):11890. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911890
Chicago/Turabian StyleKashiwabara, Tomoka, Takeo Fujiwara, Satomi Doi, and Yui Yamaoka. 2022. "Association between Hope for the Future and Academic Performance in Adolescents: Results from the K-CHILD Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 19: 11890. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191911890