Next Article in Journal
A Multivariate Age-Structured Stochastic Model with Immunization Strategies to Describe Bronchiolitis Dynamics
Next Article in Special Issue
Effects of Power and Ballistic Training on Table Tennis Players’ Electromyography Changes
Previous Article in Journal
Influence of Tunneled Hemodialysis-Catheters on Inflammation and Mortality in Dialyzed Patients
Previous Article in Special Issue
Associations between Well-Being State and Match External and Internal Load in Amateur Referees
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJERPH
Volume 18
Issue 14
10.3390/ijerph18147606
ijerph-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World

by
Aldo Seffrin
1,
Claudio A. B. Lira
2,
Rodrigo L. Vancini
3,
Douglas A. T. Santos
4,
Cathia Moser
5,
Elias Villiger
6,
Thomas Rosemann
6,
Beat Knechtle
6,7,*,
Lee Hill
8 and
Marilia S. Andrade
1
1
Department of Physiology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo 04021-001, Brazil
2
Human and Exercise Physiology Division, Faculty of Physical Education and Dance, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, Brazil
3
Center for Physical Education and Sports, Federal University of Espírito Santo, Vitória 29075-910, Brazil
4
Faculty of Physical Education, State University of Bahia, Teixeira de Freitas 45995-000, Brazil
5
Balgrist University Hospital, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
6
Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
7
Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
8
Division of Gastroenterology and Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(14), 7606; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147606
Submission received: 14 June 2021 / Revised: 8 July 2021 / Accepted: 14 July 2021 / Published: 17 July 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Athlete Performance and Health)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background: It is well known that athletes originating from a specific region or country can master specific sports disciplines (e.g., East-African runners in long-distance running). In addition, physical and athletic performance are the result of an interaction between genetic, environmental and epigenetic factors. However, little is known about on what determines sports success and performance for long-distance master swimmers such as origin. The aim of the study was to investigate the participation and performance trends of elite master open-water swimmers competing in the World Championships (WC) in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1986 and 2019. Methods: A total of 9247 valid participants were analyzed using generalized linear models (GLMs) with a gamma probability distribution and log link function. Resultsː Most of the starters were from Italy (1646 participations), followed by the United States of America (USA) (1128 participations) and Germany (959 participations). Swimmers from Italy were significantly faster than swimmers from Canada, Germany, USA, Great Britain and also from all other countries grouped (p < 0.005). The age group from 35–39 years old was significantly faster than athletes from age groups of 25–29 years old, 30–34 years old, 40–44 years old, 45–49 years old and 50–54 years old (p < 0.005). The percentage of local athletes in WC was 36% and varied from 36% (Italy, 2004) to 43 % (Germany), 53% (Italy, 2012) and up to 68 % (USA, 1992). Conclusions: Swimmers from Italy were the faster and the most numerous starters during this period of 27 years and 15 editions all over the world in 3000 m master open-water swimming.

1. Introduction

It is an interesting phenomenon that athletes originating from a specific region or country are dominating certain sports disciplines [1]. In running, for example, athletes originating from Jamaica have historically dominated in sprint events (100 m, 200 m and 400 m) [2], whereas athletes from East Africa (i.e., Ethiopia and Kenya) are some of the fastest runners over middle distance [3] and the marathon distance [4,5]. Interestingly, runners from Russia have been recently shown to consistently outperform ultra-runners from other regions in 100 km ultra-marathons [6] and the Comrades Marathon [7].
Furthermore, it seems that some of these specific athletes are from very distinct regions within a given country. For example, within Jamaica, sprint athletes predominantly originated from the Surrey County, whilst middle distance athletes were found to be over-represented from the Middlesex County [2]. Similarly, among East African runners, most national and international Kenyan athletes came from the Rift Valley province [3,8], and Ethiopian marathoners originated mainly from the regions of Arsi and Shewa [9].
However, for swimming, very little is known regarding the relationship between the origin of an athlete and its performance; moreover, most of the studies are from pool swimmers’ performance [10,11,12,13,14], and little is known about open water swimmers. In one of the few previous studies about open water swimmers, it was demonstrated that most of the athletes who participated in the English Channel Crossing between 1875 and 2013, were from Great Britain, the United States of America (USA), Australia and Ireland [15], and the fastest swim times were achieved by athletes from the USA, Australia and Great Britain [15]. In the Strait of Gibraltar, local Spanish swimmers were recorded as the fastest to complete the crossing [16]. Despite this, these open water swimming events garner interest from international participants, and many local swimmers participated and were among the fastest finishers. In this direction, it would be very interesting to know the performance of swimmers in an event that takes place worldwide, such as World Championships (WC). The knowledge about the origin of the most successful athletes allows future studies to be developed in order to evaluate the specificities of these regions/peoples capable of generating differentiated results in aquatic marathon events. In addition to performance, it is important to take in mind that master open water events also have the important aim to promote fitness among swimmers above 25 years old, therefore, it is also especially important to know which countries have the largest number of athletes participating in master swimming events.
For master swimmers, it is well-known that their performance declines with increasing age [17,18]. This age-related performance decline with advancing age is due to a decline in physiological functional capacity [17]. However, this decline might be slowed down with increased training volume [19]. For 3000 m open-water swimmers, the performance trend by age group has already been investigated [20] and we know the sex difference in open-water swimming [21], however, we have no knowledge in which age group these 3000 open-water master swimmers achieve their best performance.
Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the participation and performance trends of master open-water swimmers competing in the WC in 3000 m open-water swimming. The study also aimed to compare the performance of the swimmers among different age groups. Based upon existing findings for pool and open-water swimmers, we hypothesized that the fastest swimmers competing in this discipline would originate from the USA and Australia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethical Approval

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kanton St. Gallen, Switzerland, with a waiver of the requirement for informed consent of the participant as the study involved the analysis of publicly available data (EKSG 01-06-2010).

2.2. Data

Race results from all female and male master swimmers competing in the 3000 m open-water events from the Fédération Internationale De Natation (FINA) World Master Championships (WC), held between 1992 and 2019, were obtained from the official website [22].
Table 1 shows the year of the event and the location. Although the first FINA WC was held in 1986 in Tokyo, Japan, the first 3000 m open-water events were held in 1992 in Indianapolis, USA. A total of 9687 results were analyzed. The final race time of 200 participants, age of 239 participants and the nationality of one participant was not available. Thus, the final data set resulted in 9247 valid participants.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The primary analytical approach was a descriptive analysis. Data were described in absolute and relative frequency and means with confidence intervals (95%). Then, generalized linear models (GLMs) with a gamma probability distribution and log link function were used to assess the effect of age groups and the effect of the athlete’s origin on swimming time, sex and whether they were a local part of the models. Differences found were investigated with the Post-hoc Bonferroni test. Possible interactions with sex or the fact that the participants were local were also investigated in each analysis. The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was used to choose the distribution of the dependent variable and the model linking function, using its lowest value [23]. In addition, Omnibus test was used to ensure that the model outperforms the null model. p < 0.05 was considered significant, and all p-values were 2-sided. Statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 26, IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA).

3. Results

The ten best times among elite male master open-water swimmers competing in the WC in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1992 and 2019 were from five different countries. They were Italy (five athletes), Germany (two athletes), Russia (one athlete), Switzerland (one athlete) and Austria (one athlete). The ten best times for female were from seven different countries. They were from Italy (three athletes), Great Britain (two athletes), Switzerland (one athlete), the Netherlands (one athlete), Germany (one athlete), USA (one athlete) and Austria (one athlete). Curiously, all the male and female ten best times in 3000 m open-water swimming were achieved in the same WC, which was held in Riccione, Italy, 2012.
Comparing the 10 best times from each country, Italy showed significantly faster race times than athletes from Canada, Germany, USA, Great Britain, and all other countries (Figure 1).
The number of participants from each country in each year varied between 1 and 1023. The three countries that most participated in 3000 m open-water swimming WC over the years where Italy had 1646 participations, the USA had 1128 participations and Germany had 959 participations (Table 2).
The age group that showed the best times in relation to several other age groups was the group of individuals from 35 to 39 years old (Figure 2).
Analyzing local and foreign athletes’ participation, we observed that there was an average participation of 36% of local athletes in the WC. When the WC was held in the USA, the local athletes’ participation was 68% (1992) and 57% (2006); in Germany 43%, and in Italy 36% in 2004 and 53% in 2012 (Table 3).
An interesting piece of complementary information was that countries that had never participated in other events participated when they were hosts (South Korea and Morocco). The increase in the number of local athletes participating in the WC also coincides with the increase in the number of athletes that figure in the top ten for USA, Great Britain, Italy, Germany, Austria, Canada and Russia but not for Hungary, Morocco, New Zealand, Sweden and Korea.

4. Discussion

The aim of the study was to investigate the participation and performance trends of master open-water swimmers competing in the WC in 3000 m open-water swimming with the hypothesis that the fastest swimmers competing in that discipline would originate from the USA and Australia.
The main findings were (i) swimmers from Italy were significantly faster than swimmers from Canada, Germany, USA, Great Britain and also from all other countries grouped; (ii) age group from 34–39 years old was faster than the younger age groups; (iii) most of the starters were from Italy (1646 participations), followed by the USA (1128 participations) and Germany (959 participations); (iv) the ten fastest female and male race times were achieved in the same WC, in Riccione, Italy, in 2012; (v) the ten fastest female race times were from Italy, Great Britain, Switzerland, Netherlands, Germany, USA and Austria; (vi) the ten fastest male race times were from Italy, Germany, Russia, Switzerland and Austria, and (vii) the percentage of local athletes in local WC was, on average, 36%.
The most important finding was that swimmers from Italy were significantly faster than swimmers from other nationalities and they were also the most numerous starters during this period of 27 years and 15 editions worldwide. This contrasts with our hypotheses that the fastest swimmers in this discipline would originate from the USA and Australia [10,11]. A first explanation based upon our findings could be that most of the participants were originating from Italy, although it hosted the WC only two times during these 15 editions. There is also the question of the ease of access to competitions on the European continent. Europe has this advantage of the congregation of nations, many of them elite in sports. In other words, it is one thing to live in Europe and go to a competition in Europe, it is another to leave Europe and go to the USA and/or Australia [24,25].
A potential explanation that Italian swimmers were the fastest in the same Championship (Riccione, 2012) could be that climate and environmental conditions (e.g., water temperature) were quite favorable in that race [26,27]. Open-water swimming races are influenced by extreme environmental conditions (e.g., water temperature, tides, currents and waves) with an impact on performance, tactics and pacing [27]. Time or velocity comparison can be misleading in open-water swimming events due to the changing external conditions (e.g., water temperature, currents, circuit structure, etc.) between races. Most probably, external conditions were outstanding in that specific race and local athletes could profit. However, this does not explain why swimmers from other countries were not better than the Italian swimmers since environmental conditions were the same for all swimmers in that specific race.
Regarding swimming performance, Italy takes the 9th position in the world with 33 titles in competitive swimming over the course of its participation in international-level swimming events and the Summer Olympics [28]. Considering the world’s leading nation in swimming, Italy has improved from 9th position in 2017 to 4th position in 2019 [29]. However, future studies might investigate the participation and performance trends in elite Italian swimmers competing at world-class level in WC and Olympic Games for elite swimmers.
However, the Italians were the fastest swimmers and the most numerous in this specific sports discipline. It might be argued that Italy has a specific program for swimmers or even master swimmers [30]. The Italian Swimming Federation—Federazione Italiana Nuoto (FIN) has a specific section for master swimmers [31] with Italian Championships for master swimmers [32]. Furthermore, Riccione has, since 2003, a master team of the Polisportiva Riccione which was born from the passions of a group of swimmers. Master Nuoto Riccione organizes different races and prepares master swimmers for national and international events [33].
It is well-known that exercise and physical activity are associated with better quality of life and health outcomes [34]. There is also the question where countries have a transition program for “retirement from sport”, that is, prepare an elite athlete to be a “normal person” from the social and biological point of view [35,36]. Preparation programs for “retirement from sport” are essential for at least one athlete to continue to perform a minimum of physical activity for the maintenance of physical and mental health. Perhaps Italy is a model.
Apart from Italy, master swimming is also supported in other countries. In the USA, U.S. Masters Swimming promotes open-water master swimming providing details of clubs, events and training for future open-water master swimmers [37]. In England, master swimmers can find a club and information about swimming technique and nutrition [38]. Most probably, there are also, in other countries besides Italy, very specific regions where open-water master swimmers are specifically supported. In Oregon, USA, Oregon Masters Swimming promotes lifelong fitness by offering organized swimming for adults of all ages [39]. Additionally, in Wales, master swimmers are supported specifically with information about swimming techniques and events [40]. Eventually, these organizations also provide specific information about nutrition in open-water swimming [41].
Swimming is an interesting activity, and is deeply rooted in cultural practices and bodily encounters that change in meaning and over time and from place to place [42]. Over the course of history, humans form relationships with bodies of water (pools, lakes, rivers, oceans) and learn to be a body within that water [42]. Within that context, we understand the importance of bodies of water in terms of both their physical and mental benefits [43,44]. Although many long-distance open-water swimming events are solo feats, swimming is a social sport, situated in meaningful cultural practices [45]. Many countries located along coastlines or near bodies of water have a local population that utilizes these bodies for leisure and physical activity [46]. It is possible that countries who routinely perform the best during long-distance open-water swimming events are those whose cultural practices are situated within these bodies of water or, at the very least, originate from countries with strong sport and physical activity policies [47]. This could, in part, explain some of the findings in this study. Similar to many other countries, Italy is located along the warm waters of the Mediterranean Sea, where swimming, fishing, and bathing have strong cultural importance [48,49]. As a result, this could produce the perfect environment for Italian swimmers to refine their swimming abilities and contribute to world-class performances in international events.
Finally, another important finding from the present study is that the 3000 m WC does not only have the participation of local athletes but, on average, the participation of locals in the events was 36%; that is, the majority of participants in each event were foreigners. This result is very interesting because it shows that these events really encourage the participation of master athletes from around the world, contributing to promotion of fitness among swimmers above 25 years old. This incentive for the sport of master athletes is of great social importance, given the known benefits of physical activity throughout the aging process. The success of creating these master competition events and the goal of promoting physical conditioning among older individuals is also evidenced when the results show that the 35–39-year-old athlete group were faster than the younger athlete groups (25–29 years and 30–34 years).
A limitation of the study is the fact that data from the first FINA World Master Championship held in 1986 in Tokyo, Japan, were not included. Future studies need to investigate the participation and performance trends in elite Italian swimmers competing at world-class level in WC and Olympic Games. A further limitation is the fact that environmental conditions such as water temperature, tides, currents and waves have not been considered. All these conditions might have an overall impact on performance, influencing tactics and pacing [27]. The findings for master swimmers competing in the FINA World Master Championships do not allow drawing conclusions for elite athletes competing in World or Continental Championships.

5. Conclusions

In the WC in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1986 and 2019, swimmers from Italy achieved the ten fastest race times in the same WC. Athletes from Italy were the most numerous starters during this period of 27 years and 15 editions all over the world in 3000 m master open-water swimming. Athletes in the age group 35–39 years were the fastest and faster than the younger age groups of 25–29 years and 30–34 years.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.K. and M.S.A.; methodology, M.S.A.; formal analysis, A.S. and M.S.A.; data curation, C.M. and E.V.; writing—original draft preparation, B.K.; writing—review and editing, B.K., A.S., C.A.B.L., R.L.V., D.A.T.S., L.H. and T.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki. This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Kanton St., Gallen, Switzerland, with a waiver of the requirement for informed consent of the participant as the study involved the analysis of publicly available data (EKSG 01-06-2010).

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Race results from all female and male master swimmers competing in the 3000 m open-water events from the Fédération Internationale De Natation (FINA) World Master Championships, held between 1992 and 2019, were obtained from the official website (www.fina.org/content/fina-masters-world-championships-results-archive; accessed on 1 March 2021).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Nikolaidis, P.T. The Role of Nationality in Ultra-Endurance Sports: The Paradigm of Cross-Country Skiing and Long-Distance Running. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Irving, R.; Charlton, V.; Morrison, E.; Facey, A.; Buchanan, O. Demographic Characteristics of World Class Jamaican Sprinters. Sci. World J. 2013, 2013, 1–5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  3. Donnelly, P. Kenyan Runners from the Rift Valley (2,000 Metres above Sea Level) Have Dominated World Middle and Endurance Events for Thirty Years. J. Sci. Med. Sport 2000, 3, v–viii. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Tucker, R.; Onywera, V.O.; Santos-Concejero, J. Analysis of the Kenyan Distance-Running Phenomenon. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2015, 10, 285–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Wilber, R.L.; Pitsiladis, Y.P. Kenyan and Ethiopian Distance Runners: What Makes Them so Good? Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2012, 7, 92–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Knechtle, B.; Nikolaidis, P.; Valeri, F. Russians are the fastest 100-km ultra-marathoners in the world. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0199701. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  7. Nikolaidis, P.T.; Knechtle, B. Russians are the fastest and the youngest in the “Comrades Marathon”. J. Sports Sci. 2019, 37, 1387–1392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Onywera, V.O.; Scott, R.A.; Boit, M.K.; Pitsiladis, Y.P. Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners. J. Sports Sci. 2006, 24, 415–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Scott, R.A.; Georgiades, E.; Wilson, R.H.; Goodwin, W.H.; Wolde, B.; Pitsiladis, Y.P. Demographic Characteristics of Elite Ethiopian Endurance Runners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2003, 35, 1727–1732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Allen, S.V.; Vandenbogaerde, T.J.; Pyne, D.B.; Hopkins, W.G. Predicting a Nation’s Olympic-Qualifying Swimmers. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2015, 10, 431–435. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Pyne, D.B.; Trewin, C.B.; Hopkins, W.G. Progression and variability of competitive performance of Olympic swimmers. J. Sports Sci. 2004, 22, 613–620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Tan, T.-C.; Zheng, J.; Dickson, G. Policy transfer in elite sport development: The case of elite swimming in China. Eur. Sport Manag. Q. 2019, 19, 645–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Zheng, J. A Policy Analysis of the Development of Elite Swimming in China Between 2000 and 2012: A National Team Perspective. Int. J. Hist. Sport 2017, 34, 1247–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Sotiriadou, K.P.; Shilbury, D. Australian Elite Athlete Development: An Organisational Perspective. Sport Manag. Rev. 2009, 12, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Knechtle, B.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. Participation and performance trends by nationality in the ‘English Channel Swim’ from 1875 to 2013. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil. 2014, 6, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Nikolaidis, P.T.; Sousa, C.V.; Knechtle, B. The relationship of wearing a wetsuit in long-distance open-water swimming with sex, age, calendar year, performance, and nationality—Crossing the “Strait of Gibraltar”. Open Access J. Sports Med. 2018, 9, 27–36. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Rubin, R.T.; Lin, S.; Curtis, A.; Auerbach, D.; Win, C. Declines in swimming performance with age: A longitudinal study of Masters swimming champions. Open Access J. Sports Med. 2013, 4, 63–70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Medic, N.; Müssener, M.; Lobinger, B.H.; Young, B.W. Constituent year effect in Masters sports: An empirical view on the historical development in US Masters Swimming. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2019, 18, 505–512. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  19. Lapierre, S.S.; Baker, B.D.; Tanaka, H. Age-related Changes in Training Stimuli and Performance in Masters Swimmers. Int. J. Sports Med. 2018, 39, 835–839. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Knechtle, B.; Nikolaidis, P.T.; Rosemann, T.; Rüst, C.A. Performance trends in 3000 m open-water age group swimmers from 25 to 89 years competing in the FINA World Championships from 1992 to 2014. Res. Sports Med. 2017, 25, 67–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  21. Nikolaidis, P.T.; Di Gangi, S.; De Sousa, C.V.; Valeri, F.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B. Sex difference in open-water swimming—The Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming 1875–2017. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0202003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Fédération Internationale de Natation. Available online: www.fina.org (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  23. Akaike, H. A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Trans. Autom. Control 1974, 19, 716–723. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Eichenberger, E.; Knechtle, B.; Knechtle, P.; Rüst, C.A.; Rosemann, T.; Lepers, R. Best performances by men and women open-water swimmers during the ‘English Channel Swim’ from 1900 to 2010. J. Sports Sci. 2012, 30, 1295–1301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  25. Channel Swimming Association. Available online: www.channelswimmingassociation.com (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  26. Saycell, J.; Lomax, M.; Massey, H.; Tipton, M. How cold is too cold? Establishing the minimum water temperature limits for marathon swim racing. Br. J. Sports Med. 2019, 53, 1078–1084. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Baldassarre, R.; Bonifazi, M.; Zamparo, P.; Piacentini, M.F. Characteristics and Challenges of Open-Water Swimming Performance: A Review. Int. J. Sports Physiol. Perform. 2017, 12, 1275–1284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Countries Producing the Best Competitive Swimmers. Available online: www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-producing-the-best-competitive-swimmers.html (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  29. Swimming, Greatest Sporting Nation. Available online: https://greatestsportingnation.com/sport/swimming (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  30. Federazione Italiana Nuoto. Available online: www.federnuoto.it (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  31. Federazione Italiana Nuoto—Master. Available online: www.federnuoto.it/home/master.html (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  32. Eventi Master. Available online: www.federnuoto.it/home/master/eventi-master.html (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  33. Master Nuoto Riccione. Available online: www.masternuotoriccione.it (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  34. Penedo, F.J.; Dahn, J.R. Exercise and well-being: A review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 2005, 18, 189–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Lavallee, D.; Gordon, S.; Grove, J.R. Retirement from sport and the loss of athletic identity. J. Pers. Interpers. Loss 1997, 2, 129–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Grove, J.R.; Lavallee, D.; Gordon, S. Coping with retirement from sport: The influence of athletic identity. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 1997, 9, 191–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. US Masters Swimming. Available online: www.usms.org (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  38. Swim England Masters. Available online: https://www.swimming.org/masters (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  39. Oregon Masters Swimming. Available online: https://swimoregon.org (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  40. Swim Wales. Available online: https://swimwales.org/swimming/masters-swimming (accessed on 15 May 2021).
  41. Shaw, G.; Koivisto-Mørk, A.E.; Gerrard, D.; Burke, L.M. Nutrition Considerations for Open-Water Swimming. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2014, 24, 373–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  42. Moles, K. The Social World of Outdoor Swimming: Cultural Practices, Shared Meanings, and Bodily Encounters. J. Sport Soc. Issues 2021, 45, 20–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Wardley, T. The Mindful Art of Wild Swimming: Reflections for Zen Seekers; Leaping Hare Press: Brighton, UK, 2017. [Google Scholar]
  44. Throsby, K. Immersion: Marathon Swimming, Embodiment and Identity; Manchester University Press: Manchester, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  45. Scott, S. Re-clothing the Emperor: The Swimming Pool as a Negotiated Order. Symb. Interact. 2009, 32, 123–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Foley, R.; Kistemann, T. Blue space geographies: Enabling health in place. Health Place 2015, 35, 157–165. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  47. Hammond, A.M.; Penney, D.; Jeanes, R. Sport coaches as policy actors: An investigation of the interpretation and enactment of disability and inclusion policy in swimming in Victoria Australia. Sport Educ. Soc. 2020, 25, 570–585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Borowiecki, K.J.; Castiglione, C. Cultural Participation and Tourism Flows: An Empirical Investigation of Italian Provinces. Tour. Econ. 2014, 20, 241–262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Houlihan, B. Mechanisms of international influence on domestic elite sport policy. Int. J. Sport Policy Polit. 2009, 1, 51–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
Ijerph 18 07606 g001 550
Figure 1. Mean times, confidence interval (95%) and difference between countries in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1992 and 2019. * different from Italy; † different from Germany; ‡ different from Great Britain; # different from USA.
Figure 1. Mean times, confidence interval (95%) and difference between countries in 3000 m open-water swimming between 1992 and 2019. * different from Italy; † different from Germany; ‡ different from Great Britain; # different from USA.
Ijerph 18 07606 g001
Ijerph 18 07606 g002 550
Figure 2. Mean times, confidence interval (95%) and difference between age groups in 3000 m open-water swimming WC between 1992 and 2019. * different from 25–29; † different from 30–34; ‡ different from 35–39; # different from 40–44; § different from 45–49; ¤ different from 50–54.
Figure 2. Mean times, confidence interval (95%) and difference between age groups in 3000 m open-water swimming WC between 1992 and 2019. * different from 25–29; † different from 30–34; ‡ different from 35–39; # different from 40–44; § different from 45–49; ¤ different from 50–54.
Ijerph 18 07606 g002
Table
Table 1. Location of the FINA World Master Championships 1992–2019.
Table 1. Location of the FINA World Master Championships 1992–2019.
YearTime of YearLocation (City and Country)Season
199225 June–5 July Indianapolis (United States of America, USA)Summer
19944–10 July Montreal (Canada, CAN)Summer
199623 June–3 July Sheffield (Great Britain, GBR)Summer
199819–30 June Casablanca (Morocco, MAR)Summer
200029 July–4 August Munich (Germany, GER)Summer
200221 March–3 April Christchurch (New Zealand, NZL)Autumn
20041–13 June Riccione (Italy, ITA)Spring
20064–17 August Stanford (USA)Summer
200818–25 April Perth (Australia, AUS)Autumn
201027 July–7 August Gothenburg–Borås (Sweden, SWE)Summer
20123–17 June Riccione (Italy, ITA)Spring
201427 July–10 August Montreal (Canada, CAN)Summer
20155–16 August Kazan (Russia, RUS)Summer
20177–20 August Budapest (Hungary, HUN)Summer
20195–18 August Gwangju (South Korea, KOR)Summer
Table
Table 2. Number of athletes from each country who participated in the WC each year (data are from the ten countries that most participated).
Table 2. Number of athletes from each country who participated in the WC each year (data are from the ten countries that most participated).
RaceAUSBRACANESPFRAGBRGERITARUSUSATotal
1992—USA14413123621195241
1996—GBR122112 1097278118206
1998—MAR198 81121328516128
2000—GER51068182918633131327
2002—NZL57893719216124155
2004—ITA361682352521243231735686
2006—USA18142411203332104407573
2008—AUS27231573638317756472
2010—SWE181919464666138632342480
2012—ITA323420528475131102342481541
2014—CAN193334312983767326183830
2015—RUS1252143736151718273
2017—HUN2250267467919510510344677
2019—KOR1115923152633112321187
Total547240506282469594959164640511286776
AUS—Australia; BRA—Brazil; CAN—Canada; ESP—Spain; FRA—France; GBR—Great Britain; GER—Germany; HUN—Hungary; ITA—Italy; KOR—South Korea; MAR—Morocco; NZL—New Zealand; RUS—Russia; SWE—Sweden.
Table
Table 3. Total number of participating athletes and local athletes in each one of the 3000 m open- water WC.
Table 3. Total number of participating athletes and local athletes in each one of the 3000 m open- water WC.
RaceParticipantsLocals% of Locals
1992—USA28719568%
1996—GBR2839734%
1998—MAR19853%
2000—GER43018643%
2002—NZL3079732%
2004—ITA89932336%
2006—USA70940757%
2008—AUS65727241%
2010—SWE813618%
2012—ITA1944102353%
2014—CAN107234332%
2015—RUS36717147%
2017—HUN121413911%
2019—KOR50717835%
Mean 36%
AUS—Australia; CAN—Canada; GBR—Great Britain; GER—Germany; HUN—Hungary; ITA—Italy; KOR—South Korea; MAR—Morocco; NZL—New Zealand; RUS—Russia; SWE—Sweden; USA—United States of America.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Seffrin, A.; Lira, C.A.B.; Vancini, R.L.; Santos, D.A.T.; Moser, C.; Villiger, E.; Rosemann, T.; Knechtle, B.; Hill, L.; Andrade, M.S. Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7606. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147606

AMA Style

Seffrin A, Lira CAB, Vancini RL, Santos DAT, Moser C, Villiger E, Rosemann T, Knechtle B, Hill L, Andrade MS. Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(14):7606. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147606

Chicago/Turabian Style

Seffrin, Aldo, Claudio A. B. Lira, Rodrigo L. Vancini, Douglas A. T. Santos, Cathia Moser, Elias Villiger, Thomas Rosemann, Beat Knechtle, Lee Hill, and Marilia S. Andrade. 2021. "Italians Are the Fastest 3000 m Open-Water Master Swimmers in the World" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 14: 7606. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18147606

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop