Quality of Sleep and Work Productivity among White-Collar Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Setting
2.2. The Questionnaire
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- General questions regarding the age, sex, height, and weight of the participants, their use of alcohol or tobacco, and incidence of COVID-19 infections or COVID-19-related self-isolation or hospitalization.
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- Sleep hygiene. Respondents reported the frequency (on a 5-point Likert scale) of using media in their sleeping room or before bedtime, taking a nap during daytime, smoking or drinking caffeinated beverages or alcohol in the evening.
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- The Sleep Locus of Control (SLOC) Questionnaire, which included eight questions measuring the degree to which an individual attributes his or her experiences of sleep to either chance or internal causes [33]. A higher score indicates a more individual-dependent attitude towards sleep.
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- The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) Questionnaire [34]. This is a 19-item tool which measures sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medications, and daytime dysfunction. Higher scores indicate worse sleep quality.
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- To assess respondents‘ work performance, we used the absenteeism and presenteeism questions of the World Health Organization’s (WHO, Geneva, Switzerland) Health and Work Performance Questionnaire (HPQ) [35]. Absenteeism refers to the habitual non-presence of an employee at their job [36]. In other words, absenteeism may be defined as sickness absence. Within the WHO-HPQ, absenteeism is defined as working hours lost due to sickness absence (a high score indicates a higher number of hours lost, whereas a negative score indicates that the respondent worked more than expected). The measure of relative absenteeism is expressed as a percentage of expected work hours and ranges between a negative number (works more than expected) and 1.0 (always absent). Absenteeism was calculated using 4-week estimates. Presenteeism is a measure of actual work performance in relation to possible performance (a higher score indicates a lower amount of lost performance). Absolute presenteeism varies between 0 (total lack of performance during time on the job) and 100 (ideal performance). Relative presenteeism is a ratio of actual performance to the performance of most workers at the same job. The distribution of relative presenteeism was restricted to the range of 0.25 to 2, where 0.25 is the worst relative performance (25% or less of other workers’ performance) and 2.0 is the best performance (200% or more of other workers’ performance). Large discrepancies were indicative of superficial responding; in such cases, more detailed examination of case-by-case responses was used to make rational decisions about case deletion.
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- The Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 (GAD-7) [37]. Seven items assess the frequency of anxiety symptoms over the past two weeks on a 4-point Likert scale and ≥10 is used as a cut-off for identifying clinically relevant cases of GAD.
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- Respondents’ weekly physical activity levels were evaluated based on WHO’s guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour in which at least 150 min of moderate-intensity or at least 75 min of vigorous-intensity physical activity is recommended for adults [38].
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- Changes in sleep, appetite, exercise, work productivity and alcohol use during the COVID-19 pandemic were evaluated by using ad hoc questions based on a 5-point Likert scale.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Categories | Result |
---|---|---|
Number of respondents | 114 | |
Age (median, range) | 29 (21–46) | |
Sex (n, %) | Male | 56 (49.1) |
Female | 58 (50.9) | |
Way of living (n, %) | Alone | 26 (22.8) |
With parents | 15 (13.2) | |
With children w/o partner | 1 (0.9) | |
With partner w/o children | 50 (43.9) | |
With partner and children | 22 (19.3) | |
Physical activity | Moderate-intensity physical activity (median of minutes per week, range) | 120 (0–1320) |
High-intensity physical activity (median of minutes per week, range) | 0 (0–360) | |
Sufficient physical activity (n, %) | 57 (50) | |
Quality of sleep | PSQI score (median, range) | 5 (1–14) |
Sleep locus of control (SLOC) (median, range) | 33 (21–46) | |
GAD-7 score (median, range) | 6 (0–21) | |
Level of anxiety (n, %) | Minimal | 45 (39.5) |
Mild | 40 (35.1) | |
Moderate | 17 (14.9) | |
Severe | 12 (10.5) | |
Absolute absenteeism (median, range) | 0 (−90–125) | |
Relative absenteeism (median, range) | 0 (−0.56–0.78) | |
Absolute presenteeism (median, range) | 80 (30–100) | |
Relative presenteeism (median, range) | 1 (0.5–2) |
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Žilinskas, E.; Puteikis, K.; Mameniškienė, R. Quality of Sleep and Work Productivity among White-Collar Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Medicina 2022, 58, 883. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58070883
Žilinskas E, Puteikis K, Mameniškienė R. Quality of Sleep and Work Productivity among White-Collar Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Medicina. 2022; 58(7):883. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58070883
Chicago/Turabian StyleŽilinskas, Emilijus, Kristijonas Puteikis, and Rūta Mameniškienė. 2022. "Quality of Sleep and Work Productivity among White-Collar Workers during the COVID-19 Pandemic" Medicina 58, no. 7: 883. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58070883