Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Chemical Structure and Function of Anthocyanins
3. Major Sources of Anthocyanins
4. Anthocyanins’ Bioavailability and Metabolism
5. Anthocyanin Encapsulation
6. Putative Health Benefits
6.1. Antimicrobial Effects and Anti-Parasitic Activity
6.2. Antioxidant Properties
6.3. Anti-Inflammatory Properties
6.4. Anticancer Properties
6.5. Neurological Properties
6.6. Anti-Diabetic and Anti-Obesity Effects
6.7. Cardiovascular Properties
6.8. Eye Improvement
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Source | Maximum Anthocyanin Amount in FW (mg C3G/100 g) | Maximum Anthocyanin Amount in DW (mg C3G/100 g) | Dominant Anthocyanins | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fruits | ||||
Açaí | 282.5–303.7 | Cy 3,5-hexose pentose, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Pg 3-O-glucoside, Pn 3-O-glucoside, Pn 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-(acetyl)hexose | [51] | |
Acerola | 6.5–8.4 | Cy 3-rhamnoside, Pg 3-rhamnoside Cy, Pg | [51] | |
Apple | 30.07–71.49 * | Cy 3-galactoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-arabinoside, Pn 3-galactoside, Cy 7-arabinoside, Cy3-xyloside | [46,52] | |
Blackberries | 70.3–201 | 909.3 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-xyloside, Cy 3-malonylglucoside, Cy 3-dioxalylglucoside | [53,54] |
Black currants | 218.93 | 32,300 1 | Dp 3-O-glucoside, Dp 3-O- rutinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O- rutinoside | [55,56] |
Blueberries | 406.90 | 11601 | Dp 3-O-galactoside, Dp 3-O-glucoside, Cy-3-O-galactoside, Dp 3-O-arabinoside, Cy-3-glucoside, Pt-3-galactoside, Cy 3-O-arabinoside, Pt 3-O-glucoside, Pn 3-O-arabinoside, Mv 3-O-galactoside, Mv 3-O-glucoside | [55,57] |
Chokeberries | 357.20 | Cy 3-O-galactoside, Cy 3-arabinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy xyloside | [55,58] | |
Cranberries | 40.7–207.3 1 | Cy 3-O-galactoside Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy arabinoside, Pn galactoside, Pn 3-O-glucoside, Pn arabinoside | [59] | |
Elderberries | 317.51 | 408.6–1066.6 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-sambubioside | [55,60] |
Fig | 0.3–10.9 | 4.6–83 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside, Cy 3,5-diglucoside | [61,62] |
Grapes | 38.70–186.02 1 | 135,960–533,630 1 | Cy, Dp, Mv, Pn, Pt 3-O-glycosides; Mv, Pn, Pt 3-O-coumarylglucosides | [63,64] |
Haskaps | 449–697 | 2273 | Cy 3,5-di-glucoside; Cy 3-galactoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Pg 3-O-glucoside; Pn 3-O-glucoside | [65,66] |
Nectarine | 0.22 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside | [46,67] | |
Plums | 7.4–36.6 1 | Cy 3-xyloside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Pn 3-O-rutinoside, Pn 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-galactoside, Cy 3-(6’’-acetoyl)glucoside | [46,68] | |
Pomegranate | 1500–2000 | Dp 3,5-diglucoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3,5-diglucoside, Pg 3-O-glucoside, Pg 3,5-diglucoside | [69,70] | |
Peaches | 0.27–2.50 | 0.28–15.34 1 | Cy 3-O-rutinoside and glucoside | [71,72] |
Red cabbages | 109–185 | 1111–1780 | Cy 3-diglucoside-5-glucoside, Cy 3-(sinapoyl)(sinapoyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside, Cy 3-(ρ-coumaroyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside | [73,74] |
Red currants | 19.78 | 149.91 1 | Cyanidin-3-O-sambusoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside | [55,75] |
Red pears | 1.2–12.0 1 | Cy 3-O-galactoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy pentoside, Cy 3-O-arabinoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside | [76] | |
Red raspberries | 23.17–68.0 | 260.9–571.8 | Cy 3-O-sophoroside, Cy 3-O-(2’’-O-glucosyl)rutinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-O-(2’’-O-xylosyl)rutinoside, Pg 3-O-sophoroside, Pg 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3,5-O-diglucoside | [53,55,77] |
Strawberries | 20–60 1 | 31.9–315.2 2 | Pg 3-O-glucoside, Pg 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Pg 3-O-glucoside, Pg 3-O-rutinoside, Pg 3-(malonoyl)glucoside, Pg 3-(6’’-acetoyl)glucoside | [46,78,79] |
Sweet cherries | 2.06–462.77 1 | 107.70–218.36 1 | Cy, Dp, Pg, Pn 3-O-rutinosides and glucosides, Cy 3-coumaroyl-diglucoside, Cy 3-O-sambubioside, Cy 3-5-diglucoside, Cy 3-sophoroside Cy 3-O-arabinoside Mv 3-O-glucoside-acetaldehyde | [40,80,81] |
Tamarillo | 29.70–486.84 1 | Dp 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Pg 3-O-rutinoside | [82] | |
Tart cherries | 65.06–82.40 | 114.59 | Cy, Cy 3-O-sophoroside, Cy 3-glucosylrutinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Pn 3-O-rutinoside | [55,83] |
Tomato | 7.1 1 | 5.48–29.86 3 | Dp glycoside, Dp rutinoside, Dp ρ-coumaroyl-rutinoside Mv glycoside, Mv rutinoside, Mv ρ-coumaroyl-rutinoside-glycoside, Pt rutinoside, Pt ρ-coumaroyl-rutinoside, Pt ρ-coumaroyl-rutinoside-glycoside | [84,85] |
Vegetables | ||||
Black carrot | 22.45 * | 1.74–4.54 1 | Cy 3-(ρ-coumaroyl)-diglucoside-5-glucoside | [47,86] |
Eggplant | 6.31 | 138 4 | Dp 3-(ρ-coumaroylrutinoside)-5-glucoside, Dp 3-O-glucoside, Dp 3-glucosyl-rhamnoside, Pt -3-O-rutinoside, Cy -3-O-rutinoside | [49,50] |
Purple sweet potato | 42.37 * | Pn 3-O-sophoroside-5-O-glucoside, Pn 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-ρ-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Pn 3-ρ-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Cy 3-caffeoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Pn 3-caffeoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Cyanidin-3-caffeoyl- ρ-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Pn 3-dicaffeoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Pn 3-caffeoyl-ρ-hydroxybenzoylsophoroside-5-glucoside, Pn 3-caffeoy-feruloylsophoroside-5-glucosie | [47] | |
Red Chicory | 39.20 * | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-(6”-malonyl-glucoside) | [47] | |
Red onion | 29.99 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-laminaribioside, Cy 3-(6’’-malonyl-glucoside), Cy 3-(6”-malonyl- laminaribioside), Cy 3-xylosylglucosylgalactoside, Dp 3,5-diglycosides | [47,87] | |
Beverages | ||||
Blackberry juice | 12.3–107 | Cy 3-O-glycoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy 3-xyloside, Cy malonylglucoside, Cy dioxalylglucoside | [54] | |
Pomegranate juice | 7.2–20 1 | Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3,5-diglucoside, Dp 3,5-diglucoside, Cy 3,5-diglucoside, Pg 3,5-diglucoside, Dp 3-glucoside, Cy 3- O-glucoside; Pg 3-O-glucoside | [88] | |
Red wine | 32.71–87.17 1 | Cy, Dp, Mv, Pn, Pt 3-O-glycosides, Pn 3-O-acetylglucoside, Mv 3-O-acetylglucoside, Mv 3-O-coumarylglucoside, Pn 3-O-ρ-coumarylglucoside; | [48,89] | |
Tart cherry juice | 72.2 | Cy 3-sophoroside, Cy 3-glucosylrutinoside, Cy 3-O-glucoside, Cy 3-O-rutinoside, Cy, Pg, Pn 3-O-glucoside | [90] |
Intake | n (a) | Total Anthocyanins Intake | Cmax (b) | tmax (h) (c) | AUC (d) | Urinary Excretion (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Foods | |||||||
Blueberries (100 g) | 5 | 1200 mg | 13.1 ng/mL | 4 | [57] | ||
Elderberries (12 g) | 4 | 720 mg | 97.4 nmol/L | 1.2 h | [94] | ||
Red raspberries (300 g) | 9 | 292 µmol | 0.1–180 nmol/L | 1–1.5 | 0.007% (1–1.5 h) | [77] | |
Beverages | |||||||
Red wine (300 mL) | 6 | 218 mg | 6 | 1.5–5.1% (12 h) | [89] | ||
Red grape juice (400 mL) | 9 | Cy 3-O-glucoside | 0.42 ng/mL | 0.5 | 0.60 ng × h/mL (3 h) | 0.09% (7 h) | [97] |
Dp 3-O-glucoside | 6.12 ng/mL | 0.5 | 11.9 ng × h/mL (3 h) | 0.20% (7 h) | |||
Mv 3-O-glucoside | 48.8 ng/mL | 0.5 | 71.7 ng × h/mL (3 h) | 0.18% (7 h) | |||
Pn 3-O-glucoside | 27.3 ng/mL | 0.5 | 49.7 ng × h/mL (3 h) | 0.29% (7 h) | |||
Pt 3-O-glucoside | 16.1 ng/mL | 0.5 | 31.5 ng × h/mL (3 h) | 0.32% (7 h) | |||
Σ = 283.5 mg | 100.1 ng/mL | 0.5 | 168.4 ng × h/mL | ||||
Black currant juice (150 mL) | 8 | Cy 3-O-glucoside: 0.165 mg | 5.0 nmol/L | 1.34 | 11.0–19.6 ng × h/mL (4 h) | 0.060% (8 h) | [96] |
Cy 3-O-rutinoside: 1.24 mg | 46.3 nmol/L | 3.45 | 19.6–24.9 ng × h/mL (4 h) | 0.098% (8 h) | |||
Dp 3-O-glucoside: 0.488 mg | 22.7 nmol/L | 4.19 | 11.0–16.3 ng × h/mL (4 h) | 0.066 (8 h) | |||
Dp 3-O-rutinoside: 1.68 mg | 73.4 nmol/L | 3.18 | 16.3–24.9 ng × h/mL (4 h) | 0.11% (8 h) | |||
Açaí Juice (7 mL/kg of body weight) | 12 | 165.9 mg/L | 1138.51 ng/L | 2 | 3314.04 ng × h/L (12 h) | [11] | |
Cranberry Juice (480 mL) | 15 | Cy 3-O-galactoside (18.7 mg) | 1.38 nmol/L | 1.27 | 3.91 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.007% (4 h) | [98] |
Cy 3-O-glucoside (1.58 mg) | 0.93 nmol/L | 1.13 | 1.99 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.007% (4 h) | |||
Cy 3-O-arabinoside (16.47 mg) | 3.61 nmol/L | 1.47 | 9.16 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.010% (4 h) | |||
Mv 3-O-glucoside | 0.56 nmol/L | 0.93 | 1.25 nmol × h/L (4 h) | ||||
Pn 3-O-galactoside (30.83 mg) | 4.64 nmol/L | 1.47 | 12.00 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.015% (4 h) | |||
Pn 3-O-glucoside (5.85 mg) | 0.71 nmol/L | 1.40 | 1.85 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.029% (4 h) | |||
Pn 3-O-arabinose (21.03 mg) | 1.78 nmol/L | 1.27 | 4.13 nmol × h/L (4 h) | 0.010% (4 h) | |||
Σ = 94.47 mg | |||||||
Tart cherry juice (60 mL) | 12 | 62.47 mg/L | 2.75 µg × h/mL | 1 | 106.4 µg × h/mL | [99] | |
Grape/blueberry juice (330 mL) | 10 | 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid | 7.6 nmol/L | 1 | 568 nmol × min/L | [100] | |
Cy 3-O-glucoside | 0.10 nmol/L | 1 | 6 nmol × min/L | ||||
Dp 3-O-glucoside | 0.18 nmol/L | 1.1 | 10 nmol × min/L | ||||
Mv 3-O-glucoside | 1.5 nmol/L | 1.1 | 103 nmol × min/L | ||||
Mv 3-O-glucuronide | 1.1 nmol/L | 2 | 114 nmol × min/L | ||||
Pn 3-O-glucuronide | 1.1 nmol/L | 1.8 | 114 nmol × min/L | ||||
Pn 3-O-glucoside | 1.7 nmol/L | 1 | 52 nmol × min/L | ||||
Pt 3-O-glucoside | 0.8 nmol/L | 1 | 12 nmol × min/L | ||||
Σ = 841 mg/L | 1.21 nmol/L | ||||||
Orange juice | 18 | 53.09 mg/L | 0.63 nmol/L | 0.96 | 8.99 nmol × h/L (8 h) | 43–53% (2 h) | [101] |
Chokeberry juice (0.8 mg/kg of body weight) | 13 | 32.7 nmol/L | 1.3 | 109.4 nmol × h/L (1 h) | 0.25 (24 h) | [102] | |
Strawberry juice (34.7 mg) | 14 | Cy 3-O-glucoside: 7.8 µmol | 0.6 nmol/L | 2.1 | 1.7 nmol × h/L (10 h) | [95] | |
Pg glucuronide | 38.0 nmol/L | 1.7 | 123.8 nmol × h/L (10 h) | ||||
Pg-3-O-glucoside: 58.8 µmol | 5.2 nmol/L | 1.3 | 15.0 nmol × h/L (10 h) | ||||
Pg 3-O-rutinoside: 9.7 µmol | 0.4 nmol/L | 1.9 | 1.4 nmol × h/L (10 h) | ||||
Σ = 76.6 µmol |
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Gonçalves, A.C.; Nunes, A.R.; Falcão, A.; Alves, G.; Silva, L.R. Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review. Pharmaceuticals 2021, 14, 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14070690
Gonçalves AC, Nunes AR, Falcão A, Alves G, Silva LR. Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review. Pharmaceuticals. 2021; 14(7):690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14070690
Chicago/Turabian StyleGonçalves, Ana C., Ana R. Nunes, Amílcar Falcão, Gilberto Alves, and Luís R. Silva. 2021. "Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review" Pharmaceuticals 14, no. 7: 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14070690
APA StyleGonçalves, A. C., Nunes, A. R., Falcão, A., Alves, G., & Silva, L. R. (2021). Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review. Pharmaceuticals, 14(7), 690. https://doi.org/10.3390/ph14070690