Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Radiofrequency Spectrum Allocation
2.1. Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocations in the United States
2.1.1. Short Range Wireless Medical Devices
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- Medical Device Radio Communication Service (MDRC)—The frequency range 401–402 and 405–406 MHz are allocated for wearable medical applications. The channel bandwidth limit is 100 kHz for the bands of 401–402 and 405–406 MHz. On the other hand, 300 kHz is permitted for the band of 402–405 MHz [17,18].
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- Ultra-wide Band (UWB)—UWB is an emerging wireless band for medical applications in the band of 3.1–10.6 GHz. Wireless medical devices that are operating in UWB provide higher data transfer rate of 1 Gbps for a short range of communication (<1 m).
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- Medical Micropower Networks (MMNs)—FCC assigned a 24 MHz frequency spectrum in 413–457 MHz frequency band for implant medical device applications. The frequency spectrum is divided into four segments: 413–419, 426–432, 438–444, and 451–457 MHz [18].
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- Medical Body Area Networks (MBANs)—According to the General Electronic Health care (GEHC) proposal, FCC allocated a frequency spectrum in the band of 2360–2400 MHz to monitor human body conditions using medical body area networks [18].
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- Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee—FCC declared the frequency spectrum for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee in the frequency bands of 902–928, 2400–2483.5, and 5725–5850 MHz, respectively. These frequency spectrums can be used for short-range digital modulation communication applicable for implant medical [18].
2.1.2. Long Range Wireless Medical Devices
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- Wireless Medical Telemetry Services (WMTS)—FCC allocated at 13 MHz spectrum for WMTS in the frequency bands of 608–614, 1395–1400, and 1427–1429 MHz. WMTS devices are used for monitoring the patient’s health condition via a bi-directional wireless link [18].
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- World Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)—The frequency spectrum allocated for WiMAX in the frequency band of 2.5 GHz, according to the IEEE 802.16. WiMAX can transmit approximately 70 Mbps, which is very efficient in data transfer, it is used to transfer information from an ambulance to the hospital [18].
2.2. Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocations in Europe
2.2.1. Active Medical Implants and Associated Peripherals
2.2.2. Medical Data Acquisition Band
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- Ultra-Low Power Wireless Medical Capsule Endoscopy (ULP-WMCE)—430–440 MHz frequency band is allocated for the wearable ULP-WMCE applications. The effective channel bandwidth is 10 MHz with Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power (EIRP) −50 dBm.
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- Medical Body Area Network System (MBANS)—The frequency spectrum of 2483.5–2500 MHz allocated for MBANS is utilized for patient monitoring devices in indoor communications. The effective isotropic radiated power set for MBANS devices is 1 mW for a channel bandwidth of 3 MHz. In Figure 2, spectrum allocation for wireless medical applications in the United States and Europe is shown.
3. Factors that Affect the Design of an Implantable Antenna
3.1. Impact of Tissues Diversification
3.1.1. Radio Wave Propagation in the Lossy Medium
3.1.2. Propagation Speed inside the Human Body
3.2. Impact on Effective Wavelength
3.3. Biocompatible Encapsulation of the Implantable Antenna
3.4. Impact on Radiated Power and Efficiency
3.5. Requirement of Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)
3.6. Consideration in Powering System
4. Summary of the Existing Implant Antenna Technology
4.1. Different Antenna Design Techniques
4.1.1. Miniaturization of Antenna Dimension
4.1.2. Spiral Shape Radiating Patch
4.1.3. Insertion of Shorting Pin-In Wireless Technology
4.1.4. Gain and Efficiency Enlargement Technique
- Insulating Layers: A theoretical calculation has been made in [65], where a multilayered insulation model considering fat and dry skin was taken as standard. Notably, the insulation with zirconia and 4 mm thickness around the implant antenna gave the lowest attenuation of 34.5 dB than the other insulation materials (e.g., alumina, polyamide, peek, polypropylene). This theoretical calculation agreed with the experimental results reported in [11]. Besides, several materials-based insulation models were investigated in [66,67,68,69,70,71] and the results showed that insulation for biocompatibility reduces the attenuation, while increasing gain and radiation efficiency.
- Complimentary Split Ring Resonators (CSRRs) Antenna Model: The CSRR antenna model is an effective solution to enhance radiation efficiency and gain. This CSRR model compensates inductivity and electric field coupling with the near field due to the antenna’s negative permittivity [72,73]. The SAR is also reduced, which improves the radiation efficiency and gain. The CSRR implant antenna model for multiband (MICS, ISM, and 2.4 GHz) applications was designed and simulated in [74]. The simulation results showed that the electric field was at 403 MHz It can be noted that electric field absorption is reduced for the CSRR model compared to the non-CSRR model. Hence, radiation efficiency and gain are increased for all operational frequencies.
4.1.5. Bandwidth Enhancement Technique
4.1.6. Tuning Permanency Technique
4.2. Implant Antennas for Different Bio-Telemetry Applications
4.2.1. Implant Antenna for Monitoring of the Healing of Bone Fracture
4.2.2. Implant Antenna for Glucose Level Monitoring in Blood
4.2.3. Implant Antenna for Diagnosing Brain Diseases
4.2.4. Implant Antenna for Blood Pressure Measurement
5. Fabrication and Implantation Process of the Implant Antenna
5.1. Implant Antenna Fabrication Process
5.1.1. Antenna Fabrication
5.1.2. Verification of Implant Antenna in Biological Environment
- In vitro Antenna Testing: The fabricated implant antenna is verified in the in vitro antenna testing process using an artificial biological environment [32,54]. Investigation of artificial emulation of the biological tissue environment in the MICS band has been performed in several recent works [64,87,88]. Gels are preferred rather than regular liquid for creating artificial tissue layers, where gels make the layers more solid. Deionized distilled water is used to make the synthetic tissue layers. An artificial biological environment containing 41.48% distilled water, 56.18% glucose, and 2.33% salt with a relative permittivity and conductivity of 46.7 and 0.69 s/m, respectively [87,89]. The properties of artificial phantoms are investigated using an Agilent network analyzer. The implant antenna prototype immersed in the artificial tissue environment is shown in Figure 22a [90]. It can be noted that the implant antenna is immersed in liquid at a distance, d from the surface. The prototype antenna is connected with a vector network analyzer (VNA) via co-axial feeding cable. An implant monopole antenna inserted in the three-layer materials phantoms, where two layers are of bone and one layer of muscle. The phantom is made up of six minerals consisting of flour, oil, deionized water, food color, sugar, and detergent. The in-vitro performance of the implant antenna was compared with the simulated antenna.
- In vivo Antenna Testing: In-vitro study carried out in an artificial biological environment cannot ensure the stability of the implanted antenna system, due to the lack of dynamic representation of a real biological environment in the in vitro study [30]. Hence, antenna testing in a real biological environment is highly recommended after in vitro testing. Before implantation of the prototype antenna inside the body, this must experience the temperature testing process below 100 °C. Generally, the implant antenna itself produces heat up to 60 °C temperature because of the battery and internal system components. Besides, the implant antenna is insulated by biocompatible material for protecting the antenna system from coupling loss. Figure 23 shows the in vivo experimental set-up, where pork body is taken as the standard environment, while Figure 24 a,b illustrates the in-vivo testing of the bone fracture healing process and monitoring of blood pressure inside the left ventricle respectively.
5.2. Power Management
5.2.1. Independent Power Approaches
5.2.2. Transferrable Source
6. Limitations of the Current Implantable Antenna System and Imminent Research Challenges
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- Absorption of an electromagnetic wave happens due to coupling with lossy tissue in the near reactive and far-field. A significant amount of absorption results in low radiation efficiency and inefficient antenna operation. The radiating wave travels through the near field and far field to reach the outside receiver antenna, since the absorption in the far-field is unavoidable. However, the absorption of a radio wave can be avoided if the biocompatibility of the implant antenna is covered near the field. Therefore, implant antenna design with biocompatibility covering the near field will be a possible research challenge in the future.
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- Inhomogeneous biological tissues and organs form the human body. Besides, the dimension and characteristics of biological tissues vary from time to time and gender to gender. Therefore, the detuning effect is considered the primary research challenge in designing an implanted antenna for biotelemetry applications. The implantable antenna tuned in a resonance frequency may not be stable for other persons or locations. In research work [103], the detuning effect was performed on four anatomical bodies and thirty tissues. An almost 70 MHz frequency shift from the primary resonance frequency was observed. To date, implant antenna design and experiments are limited to only a single tissue environment, which will be a significant disadvantage for diverse tissue environments. Hence, the upcoming implant antenna must be investigated in different biological environments for efficient antenna operation.
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- Injection of a radio-frequency device inside the human body may have a long-term complex health problem due to radiative power absorption. Therefore, effective implant antenna design with limiting SAR value and appropriate selection of biocompatible materials will be the primary research concern.
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- Conventional antenna dimension miniaturization techniques tend to narrow operational bandwidth. The narrowband operation cannot avoid the detuning effect that happens inside the biological environment. Even though biocompatible encapsulation of the implant antenna is utilized to enhance radiation efficiency and gain, it expands the overall thickness of the implant medical device. Hence, the antenna design technique with adequate operational bandwidth, radiation efficiency, and gain is still a challenging issue in implantable medical device technology.
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- Generally, IMD inside the human body is powered by a battery system. Still, a limited life-time power system and the bulky dimension cause inadequacy in the implant antenna power system. Also, the replacement of the battery system via a surgical procedure makes implementation difficult. The nuclear battery system can be an effective solution to the limited battery life. The nuclear battery provides stable power of 50 μW over an extended range of duration [91]. The only challenge is providing a proper guideline to avoid the poisonousness of radioactive radiation.
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- A biofuel cell is a battery-less power system that converts biochemical energy into electricity. The primary limitation of a biofuel cell is micro-watt level power, which limits its usefulness in IMDs. Moreover, biofuel cells can harm the tissue cell, even though it is biocompatible in laboratory testing [95].
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- There are also some other battery-less power system for implant antennas. For example thermoelectricity, piezoelectricity, and electrostatic generators. Although those provide microwatt-level power over a long time, biocompatibility and proper design are the major research challenges of those power source models.
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- Wireless power transfer is considered a promising solution in the implantable antenna power system [104]. Optical charging, ultrasonic transducers, and inductive coupling are the key examples of wireless power transfer in the implant antenna system to transfer milli-watt level power in the system. Nevertheless, during the power transfer with those systems, skin temperature rises, causing tissue damage and physical pain inside the body. Besides, there are limiting factors related to power transfer, which can reduce efficiency.
7. Summary
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soliman, M.M.; Chowdhury, M.E.H.; Khandakar, A.; Islam, M.T.; Qiblawey, Y.; Musharavati, F.; Zal Nezhad, E. Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges. Sensors 2021, 21, 3163. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093163
Soliman MM, Chowdhury MEH, Khandakar A, Islam MT, Qiblawey Y, Musharavati F, Zal Nezhad E. Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges. Sensors. 2021; 21(9):3163. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093163
Chicago/Turabian StyleSoliman, Md Mohiuddin, Muhammad E. H. Chowdhury, Amith Khandakar, Mohammad Tariqul Islam, Yazan Qiblawey, Farayi Musharavati, and Erfan Zal Nezhad. 2021. "Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges" Sensors 21, no. 9: 3163. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093163
APA StyleSoliman, M. M., Chowdhury, M. E. H., Khandakar, A., Islam, M. T., Qiblawey, Y., Musharavati, F., & Zal Nezhad, E. (2021). Review on Medical Implantable Antenna Technology and Imminent Research Challenges. Sensors, 21(9), 3163. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21093163