A Non-Invasive Millimetre-Wave Radar Sensor for Automated Behavioural Tracking in Precision Farming—Application to Sheep Husbandry
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Sheep
2.2. Arena Test
- -
- In phase 1, the focal sheep could explore the arena for 15 s and see its conspecifics through a grid barrier;
- -
- In phase 2, visual contact between the focal sheep and the social stimuli was disrupted using an opaque panel pulled down from the outside of the pen for 60 s. This phase was used to assess the sociability of the sheep towards its conspecifics;
- -
- In phase 3, visual contact between the focal sheep and its conspecifics was re-established and a human was standing still in front of grid barrier for 60 s. This phase was used to assess the sociability of the focal sheep towards conspecifics in presence of a immobile human.
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Video and Radar Tracking
2.5. Extraction of New Behavioural Parameters Form the Radar Data
- 1: Behavioural classes;
- 2: Behavioural transitions;
- 3: Space coverage;
2.6. Outdoor Radar Tracking
2.7. Statistical Analyses
- Analysis of new movement features
- Classification of behavioural types;
3. Results
3.1. Radar Tracking Is Faster and More Accurate Than Video Tracking
3.2. New Behavioural Indicators from the Radar Data
- Behavioural classes: detection of slow and fast movements
- Wavelet analysis: detection of erratic behavioural transitions;
- Heatmap analyses: Detection of spatial coverage
3.3. Sheep Behavioural Phenotype
3.4. Outdoor Radar Tracking
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Name | Indoor Tracking | Outdoor Tracking | Note |
---|---|---|---|
Operating frequency | 77 GHz | 24 GHz | This frequency is also called the carrier frequency of the frequency-modulated signal transmitted by the radar |
Modulation Bandwidth | 3 GHz | 800 MHz | Frequency interval, centred at the operating frequency, used for the saw-tooth frequency modulation of the transmitted signal |
Ramp time | 256 µs | 1 ms | Up-ramp duration of the saw-tooth frequency-modulated signal (or chirp duration) |
Repetition time | 50 ms | 30 ms | Period of the transmitted frequency-modulated signal (or chirp repetition interval) |
Number of linear arrays of the transmitting antenna array | 4 | 1 | One linear array composed of 8 × 2 rectangular patches radiating elements |
Number of linear arrays of the receiving antenna array | 8 | 2 | Eight linear arrays composed of 8 rectangular patches radiating elements |
Main lobe beamwidth of the transmitting antenna array in the horizontal plane | 50° | 58° | Angular range (or field of view) of the radar illumination in the horizontal plane |
Transmitted power | 100 mW | 100 mW | Power delivered at the input terminals of the transmitting array antenna (the radiated power is defined as the product of the transmitted power by the efficiency of the antenna) |
Tracking Method | Radar | Video |
---|---|---|
Number of measures per second | 50 | 25 |
Read Only Memory (ROM) for all measures of a sheep | 151 Mo | 62 Mo |
Random Access Memory (RAM) per measure | 524 Kb | 3.7 Mb |
Processing time per measure | <20 ms | 250 ms |
Distance to target centre | 1.1 m | 1.5 m |
Estimate | Std. Error | z Value | Pr (>|z|) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 0.11 | 0.055 | 2.08 | 0.037 |
Sociability | 0.13 | 0.039 | 3.47 | <0.001 |
phase 3 | −1.24 | 0.0086 | −144.04 | <0.001 |
Docility | −0.11 | 0.047 | −2.43 | 0.015 |
sociability:phase 3 | −0.12 | 0.0061 | −19.90 | <0.001 |
Docility: phase 3 | 0.16 | 0.0074 | 21.31 | <0.001 |
Wavelet Y | Estimate | Std. Error | Df | t Value | Pr (>|t|) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 514 | 6.64 | 110 | 77.3 | <0.001 |
sociability | 17 | 4.68 | 110 | 3.63 | <0.001 |
phase 3 | −91.5 | 9.07 | 55 | −10.1 | <0.001 |
docility | −3.12 | 5.72 | 110 | −0.545 | 0.587 |
Sociability:phase 3 | −14.4 | 6.4 | 55 | −2.25 | 0.05 |
Docility:phase 3 | 4.7 | 7.81 | 55 | 0.602 | 0.55 |
Wavelet X | Estimate | Std. Error | df | t Value | Pr (>|t|) |
(Intercept) | 467 | 6.04 | 110 | 77.3 | <0.001 |
sociability | 0.526 | 4.26 | 110 | 0.124 | 0.902 |
phase 3 | −53.2 | 8.26 | 55 | −6.43 | <0.001 |
Docility | −9.61 | 5.2 | 110 | −1.85 | 0.0673 |
Sociability:phase 3 | 7.36 | 5.82 | 55 | 1.26 | 0.212 |
Docility: phase 3 | 19.2 | 7.11 | 55 | 2.7 | <0.05 |
Heatmap | Estimate | Std. Error | z Value | Pr (>|z|) |
---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 2.95 | 0.037 | 79.00 | <2 × 10−16 |
docility | −0.066 | 0.031 | 2.07 | 0.039 |
phase 3 | −0.77 | 0.053 | 14.27 | <2 × 10−16 |
sociability | 0.048 | 0.023 | 2.022 | 0.043 |
phase 3: docility | 0.099 | 0.046 | 2.15 | 0.032 |
phase 3: sociability | −0.020 | 0.038 | 0.52 | 0.60 |
Component | Eigenvalue | Variance Explained |
---|---|---|
PC 1 | 2.893 | 30.65 |
PC 2 | 1.738 | 19.31 |
PC 3 | 0.974 | 13.04 |
PC 4 | 0.833 | 9.27 |
PC 5 | 0.564 | 7.20 |
PC 6 | 0.492 | 6.69 |
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Dore, A.; Pasquaretta, C.; Henry, D.; Ricard, E.; Bompa, J.-F.; Bonneau, M.; Boissy, A.; Hazard, D.; Lihoreau, M.; Aubert, H. A Non-Invasive Millimetre-Wave Radar Sensor for Automated Behavioural Tracking in Precision Farming—Application to Sheep Husbandry. Sensors 2021, 21, 8140. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21238140
Dore A, Pasquaretta C, Henry D, Ricard E, Bompa J-F, Bonneau M, Boissy A, Hazard D, Lihoreau M, Aubert H. A Non-Invasive Millimetre-Wave Radar Sensor for Automated Behavioural Tracking in Precision Farming—Application to Sheep Husbandry. Sensors. 2021; 21(23):8140. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21238140
Chicago/Turabian StyleDore, Alexandre, Cristian Pasquaretta, Dominique Henry, Edmond Ricard, Jean-François Bompa, Mathieu Bonneau, Alain Boissy, Dominique Hazard, Mathieu Lihoreau, and Hervé Aubert. 2021. "A Non-Invasive Millimetre-Wave Radar Sensor for Automated Behavioural Tracking in Precision Farming—Application to Sheep Husbandry" Sensors 21, no. 23: 8140. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21238140