A Time-Series-Based New Behavior Trace Model for Crowd Workers That Ensures Quality Annotation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- It proposes novel time-series-based models in the field of crowdsourcing quality control.
- It introduces two new models with various experiments. The first was based on time-series feature generation, showing the important features of crowd workers’ behavior. The other model was based on converting time series into heatmaps and then leveraging from their recurring characteristics to classify the tasks of crowd workers. The latter model establishes a baseline for research in the application of a lightweight deep learning model in the field of crowdsourcing workers’ assessment control.
- The proposed models possess superior performance. We demonstrated that our models outperform time-series state-of-the-art models such as dynamic time warping (DTW) and time-series support vector classifier (TS-SVC), as well as leading research works by Rzeszotarski and Kittur [32] and Goyal et al. [34].
2. Related Work
2.1. Traditional Approaches
2.2. Behavior Tracing Approaches
3. Method and Materials
3.1. Dataset
3.2. Proposed Models
3.2.1. Feature-Based Model
Feature Generation
- Statistical:
- Transformed:
- Information theory/entropy:
- Time-series-related/others:
Feature Selection/Reduction
3.2.2. Image-CNN Model
Recurrence Plot
CNN Model
4. Experimental Results and Evaluation
4.1. Experimental Results
4.1.1. Evaluation Metrics
4.1.2. Features-Based Model
- Parameters tuning:
- Feature generation and selection:
4.1.3. Image-CNN Model
- Parameter tuning:
4.1.4. Baselines
4.1.5. Parameters and Software
5. General Discussion
5.1. Feature-Based Models
5.2. Image-CNN Model
5.3. Baselines
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Feature Name | Feature Description | Action Name | Importance Order | Parameters |
---|---|---|---|---|
Continuous Wavelet Transform coefficients | The Continuous Wavelet Transform for the Mexican hat wavelet | MMT * | 1 | 1st Coefficient width 2 |
8 | 1st Coefficient width 5 | |||
15 | 1st Coefficient width 10 | |||
18 | 1st Coefficient width 20 | |||
63 | 2nd Coefficient width 5 | |||
68 | 2nd Coefficient width 20 | |||
71 | 2nd Coefficient width 10 | |||
72 | 2nd Coefficient width 2 | |||
FCT * | 28 | 1st Coefficient width 10 | ||
33 | 1st Coefficient width 2 | |||
36 | 1st Coefficient width 20 | |||
38 | 1st Coefficient width 5 | |||
CST * | 64 | 1st Coefficient width 2 | ||
66 | 1st Coefficient width 10 | |||
77 | 1st Coefficient width 5 | |||
Quantile | The q quantile of the sample (10 quantiles) | MMT | 2 | The 9th quantile |
6 | The 1st quantile | |||
7 | The 2nd quantile | |||
9 | The 3rd quantile | |||
10 | The 6th quantile | |||
11 | The 7th quantile | |||
12 | The 8th quantile | |||
14 | The 4th quantile | |||
78 | The 5th quantile | |||
FCT | 22 | The 1st quantile | ||
23 | The 9th quantile | |||
25 | The 8th quantile | |||
26 | The 4th quantile | |||
27 | The 6th quantile | |||
29 | The 7th quantile | |||
32 | The 3rd quantile | |||
34 | The 2nd quantile | |||
CST | 48 | The 9th quantile | ||
52 | The 8th quantile | |||
57 | The 4th quantile | |||
59 | The 2nd quantile | |||
73 | The 6th quantile | |||
74 | The 7th quantile | |||
75 | The 1st quantile | |||
Fast Fourier Transform coefficient | The fourier coefficients of the one-dimensional discrete Fourier Transform | MMT | 16 | Real 1st coefficient |
17 | Absolute 1st coefficient | |||
76 | Absolute 2nd coefficient | |||
FCT | 30 | Absolute 1st coefficient | ||
35 | Real 1st coefficient | |||
Sum values | The sum over the sample values | MMT | 19 | |
FCT | 37 | |||
Benford correlation | The correlation resulted from the Newcomb-Benford’s Law distribution | MMT | 39 | |
FCT | 40 | |||
CST | 56 | |||
Absolute energy | The absolute energy of the sample which is the sum over the squared values | MMT | 41 | |
Energy ratio by chunks | The sum of squares of chunk i out of N chunks expressed as a ratio with the sum of squares over the whole series. (10 segments) | MMT | 43 | First segment |
42 | Second segment | |||
Fast Fourier Transform aggregated | The spectral centroid (mean), variance, skew, and kurtosis of the absolute fourier transform spectrum. | MMT | 44 | Centroid |
61 | Variance | |||
Change quantiles | The average, absolute value of consecutive changes of the series x inside the corridor of quantiles q-low and q-high. | MMT | 45 | Mean without absolute difference of (the higher quantile and the lower quantile) |
55 | Mean with absolute difference of (the higher quantile and the lower quantile) | |||
Variation coefficient | The variation coefficient (standard error/mean, give relative value of variation around mean) of x | MMT | 46 | |
Mean absolute change | The mean over the absolute differences between subsequent sample values | MMT | 47 | |
Mean change | The mean over the differences between subsequent sample values. | MMT | 49 | |
Linear trend | The linear least-squares regression for the values of the sample versus the sequence from 0 to length of the sample minus one. | MMT | 50 | Slope |
60 | Intercept | |||
Complexity Estimator | The estimation for a sample complexity (A more complex sample has more peaks, valleys etc.). | MMT | 53 | Without normalization |
Standard deviation | The standard deviation of the sample x. | MMT | 69 | |
Absolute sum of changes | The sum over the absolute value of consecutive changes in the series x. | MMT | 62 | |
Maximum | The largest value of the sample x. | MMT | 3 | |
FCT | 20 | |||
CST | 70 | |||
Minimum | The smallest value of the sample x. | MMT | 4 | |
FCT | 21 | |||
CST | 58 | |||
Mean | The mean of the sample x | MMT | 5 | |
FCT | 24 | |||
CST | 54 | |||
Median | The median of the sample x | MMT | 13 | |
FCT | 31 | |||
CST | 65 |
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Feature Name | Type | Feature Description |
---|---|---|
total_mouse_movements | Action-based | The total number of mouse movements. |
total_scrolled_pixels _vertical | The total number of scrolled pixels. | |
total_clicks | The total number of mouse clicks. | |
total_keypresses | The total number of keyboard pressing. | |
total_pastes | The total number of pastes. | |
total_focus_changes | The total number of focusing changes. | |
total_pixels | The total number of pixels movements in x/y directions. | |
total_task_time | Time-based | The total time of completing the HIT. |
total_on_foucs_time | The total time that was spent completing the HIT. | |
recorded_time_disparity | Difference between the total time and the time spent outside the HIT. | |
avg_dwell_time | Average time between two successive logged events. |
Importance Threshold (Log10) | Mean/18 −11.156 | Mean/9 −10.463 | Mean/3 −9.365 | Mean −8.266 | Mean 3 −7.1678 | Mean × 9 −6.061 | Mean × 18 −4.970 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No. of features | 1629 | 1158 | 984 | 770 | 377 | 78 | 41 |
Accuracy | 82.9 | 83.3 | 83.1 | 82.1 | 82.8 | 80.6 | 78.2 |
AUC-ROC | 81.1 | 81.3 | 80.9 | 82.0 | 81.1 | 80.8 | 79.1 |
Hyper-Parameter | Training Accuracy | Validation Accuracy | Training Loss | Validation Loss |
---|---|---|---|---|
Batch size | Learning rate: , Epochs: 150, Input Dimensions 32 × 32, dropout rate for conv. layer and dense layer = 0.5 and 0.25, respectively. | |||
25 | 0.8050 | 0.7633 | 0.4446 | 0.6291 |
50 | 0.7956 | 0.7712 | 0.4786 | 0.5475 |
75 | 0.7827 | 0.7539 | 0.4988 | 0.5517 |
Dropout rate (for the Conv. layer) | Batch size: 50, Learning rate: , Epochs: 150, Input Dimensions 32 × 32, dropout rate dense layer: 0.25. | |||
0.25 | 0.7485 | 0.7649 | 0.5225 | 0.5264 |
0.50 | 0.7587 | 0.7367 | 0.5306 | 0.5505 |
0.75 | 0.7254 | 0.7179 | 0.5523 | 0.5826 |
Dropout rate (for the Dense layer) | Dropout rate: Conv. layer: 0.25, Batch size: 50, Learning rate: , Epochs: 150, Input Dimensions 32 × 32 | |||
0.25 | 0.8054 | 0.7821 | 0.4551 | 0.5423 |
0.50 | 0.7391 | 0.7680 | 0.5495 | 0.5236 |
0.75 | 0.6865 | 0.6959 | 0.6121 | 0.6059 |
Image Input dimensions | Dropout rate: Conv. layer: 0.25, Batch size: 50, Learning rate:, Epochs: 150 | |||
32 × 32 | 0.7705 | 0.7837 | 0.4987 | 0.5080 |
56 × 56 | 0.8195 | 0.7382 | 0.4271 | 0.5778 |
28 × 28 | 0.7991 | 0.7649 | 0.4695 | 0.5408 |
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Al-Qershi, F.; Al-Qurishi, M.; Aksoy, M.S.; Faisal, M.; Algabri, M. A Time-Series-Based New Behavior Trace Model for Crowd Workers That Ensures Quality Annotation. Sensors 2021, 21, 5007. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155007
Al-Qershi F, Al-Qurishi M, Aksoy MS, Faisal M, Algabri M. A Time-Series-Based New Behavior Trace Model for Crowd Workers That Ensures Quality Annotation. Sensors. 2021; 21(15):5007. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155007
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Qershi, Fattoh, Muhammad Al-Qurishi, Mehmet Sabih Aksoy, Mohammed Faisal, and Mohammed Algabri. 2021. "A Time-Series-Based New Behavior Trace Model for Crowd Workers That Ensures Quality Annotation" Sensors 21, no. 15: 5007. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155007