Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Technology, Requirements and Parameters for Wearable Motion Analysis in Sports
1.2.1. Gyroscope, Accelerometer and Magnetic Sensors
1.2.2. Requirements for Measuring Human Movements in Sport
1.2.3. Sensor Derived Parameters
Temporal Parameters
Kinematic Parameters
Dynamic Parameters
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
2.2. Search Strategy
2.3. Review Process
3. Trends
3.1. Paper Selection and Identification
3.2. Journals and Years
3.3. Participants, Setting, Sport, Motor Task
- aerial movements (diving trampoline jumps, half-pipe snowboard, front/back somersaults)
- agility runs (change of direction, side-cuts, turning)
- bicycling (indoor or outdoor track, jumping)
- horse riding (trot, gallop, circles, change of directions)
- jumping (with and without counter movement, with one or two legs, drop landing, drop jump, stop jump, jump header, moving header, standing short\long jump, springboard)
- climbing
- swimming (starts, front crawl, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, freestyle, turns)
- roller skating and skateboarding
- rowing and paddling (single and double scull rowing, kayak propulsion)
- running (treadmill and over ground, distance and sprint running, hurdles)
- skiing and snowboarding (giant slalom, downhill, cross country runs, ski jumping, uphill ski mountaineering, roller skiing)
- wheelchair sprint and turns.
- tackling and sustaining physical collisions
- takedowns
- weightlifting, entailing the use of upper or lower limbs (snatch lift, back squat, pull/throw on bench press).
- kicks (soccer in step kick, karate front kick)
- trunk rotations (golf and baseball swing, ice hockey slap shot, baseball bat swing)
- overarm movements (tennis serve/volley/strokes, pitching, cricket bowling, javelin throwing, shot put) sidearm and underarm movements (air pistol shots, boxing straight punch, karate jabs/crosses/hooks/upper-cuts, fencing lunge and touche, bowling ball throw, golf putt).
3.4. Technique Analysis, Intensity Measures for Match Analysis, Motor Capacity Assessment, and Activity Classification
3.4.1. Technique Analysis (163 Papers)
Spatio–Temporal Parameters
Body Segment and Centre of Mass Kinematics
- performing the integration over a short time duration through proper segmentation of the task and using a priori information to reset the error at each cycle (running speed obtained from a shank sensor [328])
- assuming equal initial and final conditions for vertical velocity and position (during vertical jumping [220])
- subtracting the linear trend line over the analysed time period from the Euler angles [41]
- defining a body model and measuring body segment orientation with respect to a reference to obtain vertical and horizontal CoM displacements (with respect to the skis at take-off during ski jumping [88], with respect to the ground during a golf swing [238] and with respect to a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) antenna placed over the head during alpine skiing [122])
- through data fusion with GPS based position estimates, which simultaneously compensates for short-term GPS outages (during outdoor activities such as snowboarding [333])
Body Orientation
Object orientation and kinematics
- bowling (ball velocity [180])
- cricket bowling (outward acceleration at ball release [288])
- ice hockey (puck velocity [309])
- fencing (foil speed during lounge and touche [329])
- gymnastics vaulting (springboard kinematics during jump on and take-off [187])
- javelin throw (javelin kinematics during the throw [270])
- kayaking (instantaneous boat velocity [169])
- shot-put (shot acceleration [139])
- softball (ball’s velocity at release [221])
- tennis (consistency of backhand, forehand, overhand swings [301])
- outdoor running (path incline [162])
- uphill mountaineering (ski slope orientation [121])
Dynamics and Power
Spectral Analysis
Technique Analysis Objectives
- pacing strategy, determination by stride/step/stroke rates assessment (detailed references in the spatio–temporal parameters section)
- evaluation of the adherence of a movement technique to appropriate normative data (performance model) for both injury management and performance enhancement [52]
- investigation into the effect on performance of varying the sports objects characteristics (e.g., effect of ball size on player reaction and racket acceleration during the tennis volley [59])
- use of technical information to match equipment with athlete, or in crew selection processes (kayaking [260])
- monitoring fatigue during running [295]
3.4.2. Match Analysis and Load Monitoring/Physical Demands Assessment (61 Papers)
- assessing the effect of playing position (American football [317], Australian Football [73,137,178], handball [210], netball [86,99], rugby [128,130], rugby sevens [296], soccer [152,277]), playing level (elite and sub elite: Australian Football [73], soccer [109,277]), numerical advantage (soccer [235]), playing time [311], playing standard (Australian Football [98], badminton [113], rugby [129,131]), and age group (tennis [163])
- assessing the effect of match score on activity profile and skill performance (Australian football [298])
- assessing the contribution of running to external load, through a correlation analysis of distance covered (field hockey [253])
- assessing the number of collisions and repeated high-intensity efforts [128]
- determining the best load assessment according to training mode (rugby [316])
- inferring information about internal load (soccer [144])
- assessing the impact of playing experience on internal load, as estimated through the external load [137]
3.4.3. Motor Capacity Assessment (51 Papers)
3.4.4. Activity Classification (19 Papers)
- the identification of different movement patterns through simple visual inspection (cross-country skiing [215])
- the identification/evaluation of techniques and styles/tricks [154,164,268], specific movement phases [114], and events (player tackles and collisions during rugby matches [176], putt detection and characterization for golf training progress [171], arm action and ball release performed by cricket fast bowlers during training and competition [227], eventually used for the detection of illegal events [195,322])
- automatic classification of training backgrounds and experience levels in runners [184].
3.5. Device Characteristics
4. Discussion
4.1. General Trends
4.2. Technological Advancements and Future Developments
4.3. Guidelines and Standards
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Criteria | Definition |
---|---|
Measurement instruments | magneto-inertial sensors |
Motor tasks | tasks of interest in a sport context |
Type of assessment | included:
|
Publication type | journal papers |
Cohort under investigation | recreational, experienced, and elite athletes |
Database Keywords |
---|
Web of Science: (“accelerometry” OR “accelerometer” OR “gyroscope” OR “inertial sensor” OR “inertial measurement unit” OR “wearable sensor” OR “wearable system” OR “wearable device” OR “IMU” OR “MEMS”) AND (sport OR “baseball” OR “basketball” OR bicycling OR “boxing” OR “football” OR “golf” OR “gymnastics” OR “hockey” OR “martial arts” OR “tai ji” OR “karate” OR “taekwondo” OR “mountaineering” OR “racquet sports” OR “tennis” OR “cricket” OR “softball” OR “badminton” OR “running” OR “jogging” OR skating OR “snow sports” OR ski * OR “soccer” OR “snowboard” OR swimming OR “diving” OR “track and field” OR “volleyball” OR “weight lifting” OR “wrestling”) AND (humans OR athletes) NOT (patients OR pathology OR animals OR “physical activity” OR “energy expenditure”) limit to English |
Scopus: “accelerometry” OR “accelerometer” OR “gyroscope” OR “inertial sensor” OR “inertial measurement unit” OR “wearable sensor” OR “wearable system” OR “wearable device” OR “IMU” OR “MEMS” AND sport AND humans OR athletes AND NOT patients OR pathology OR animals OR “physical activity” OR “energy expenditure” limit to English |
Pubmed: (“accelerometry” OR “accelerometer” OR “gyroscope” OR “inertial sensor” OR “inertial measurement unit” OR “wearable sensor” OR “wearable system” OR “wearable device” OR “IMU” OR “MEMS”) AND (sports [Mesh] OR karate OR taekwondo OR “cricket” OR softball OR badminton) AND (humans [Mesh] OR athletes [Mesh]) NOT (patients OR pathology [Mesh] OR animals OR “physical activity” OR “energy expenditure”) AND “English” [Language] |
Sport Discus: (“accelerometry” OR “accelerometer” OR “gyroscope” OR “inertial sensor” OR “inertial measurement unit” OR “wearable sensor” OR “wearable system” OR “wearable device” OR “IMU” OR “MEMS”) AND (sport OR “baseball” OR “basketball” OR bicycling OR “boxing” OR “football” OR “golf” OR “gymnastics” OR “hockey” OR “martial arts” OR “tai ji” OR “karate” OR “taekwondo” OR “mountaineering” OR “racquet sports” OR “tennis” OR “cricket” OR “softball” OR “badminton” OR “running” OR “jogging” OR skating OR “snow sports” OR ski * OR “soccer” OR “snowboard” OR swimming OR “diving” OR “track and field” OR “volleyball” OR “weight lifting” OR “wrestling”) AND (humans OR athletes) NOT (patients OR pathology OR animals OR “physical activity” OR “energy expenditure”) AND (LA (English)) |
Team Sports | Other Individual Sports | Cyclic Sports | Winter and Outdoors Sports | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
rugby | 20 | tennis | 7 | distance running | 46 | alpine skiing | 7 |
Australian football | 12 | golf | 5 | swimming | 34 | climbing | 5 |
soccer | 10 | weightlifting | 4 | cycling | 10 | cross-country skiing | 4 |
baseball | 5 | mixed martial arts | 3 | rowing | 8 | ski jumping | 4 |
cricket | 4 | boxing | 2 | sprint running | 3 | snowboarding | 4 |
field hockey | 4 | diving | 2 | kayaking | 2 | ski mountaineering | 3 |
volleyball | 4 | javelin throw/shot-put | 2 | race walking | 1 | aerial skiing | 1 |
ice hockey | 3 | karate | 2 | roller skiing | 1 | ||
netball | 3 | artistic gymnastics | 1 | Motor capacity | skateboarding | 1 | |
basketball | 2 | badminton | 1 | ||||
wheelchair basketball | 2 | bowling | 1 | jumping | 24 | ||
American football | 1 | fencing | 1 | overload training | 20 | ||
contact sports | 1 | horse riding | 1 | agility tests | 7 | ||
Gaelic football | 1 | shooting | 1 | ||||
handball | 1 | taekwondo | 1 | ||||
softball | 1 |
Parameter Type | Type of Assessment | Sport | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Spatio-temporal | temporal | non-cyclic tasks | measure critical temporal events | blade–puck contact time in ice hockey |
cricket ball bowling and release | ||||
detect task phases and critical events | artistic gymnastics springboard jumps | |||
baseball swing | ||||
bowling | ||||
cricket bowling | ||||
diving trampoline jumps | ||||
golf | ||||
half-pipe snowboard | ||||
instep kick | ||||
javelin throw | ||||
karate front kick | ||||
ski jumping | ||||
soccer turning manoeuvres | ||||
swimming tumble turn and start | ||||
cyclic tasks | characterize cyclic stride/step/stroke event | cricket ball delivery | ||
kayaking | ||||
multi-person rowing | ||||
running | ||||
single sculler rowing | ||||
skating | ||||
swimming | ||||
revolution rate | bowling ball | |||
cycling | ||||
detect task phases | cross-country skiing | |||
front crawl | ||||
ice hockey skating | ||||
running on a track | ||||
running on a treadmill | ||||
sprint running | ||||
uphill mountaineering | ||||
spatial | Step/cycle length | swimming | ||
treadmill running | ||||
Centre of mass (CoM) | velocity | instantaneous | rowing | |
alpine skiing | ||||
cycling | ||||
running | ||||
simulated cross-country skiing | ||||
snowboarding | ||||
swimming | ||||
vertical jumping | ||||
average | cross-country skiing | |||
running | ||||
running cycle | ||||
swimming cycle | ||||
swimming lane | ||||
swimming turning | ||||
uphill mountaineering | ||||
displacement | forward | alpine skiing | ||
cross-country skiing | ||||
jumps while skiing, snowboarding, mountain biking | ||||
running | ||||
ski jumping | ||||
snowboarding | ||||
uphill mountaineering | ||||
vertical | running | |||
golf swing | ||||
ski jumping | ||||
acceleration | event detection and amplitude | running impacts | ||
landing from horizontal jump | ||||
tennis racket shock | ||||
variations in acceleration amplitude | running performance, economy, symmetry | |||
Objects | orientation | whole body movements | ski horizontal and V-opening angles | ski jumping |
ski inclination | alpine skiing | |||
boat–oar stroke angle | rowing | |||
boat orientation | ||||
bicycle roll and crank angle | cycling | |||
swing | club face orientation | golf | ||
bat orientation | baseball swing | |||
kinematics | whole body movements | springboard kinematics | gymnastic vaulting | |
boat kinematics | rowing | |||
oar acceleration | ||||
seat position | ||||
road incline | running | |||
shot acceleration | shot put | |||
ski velocity | ski jumping | |||
swing | bat position and linear velocity | baseball swing | ||
club head kinematics | golf | |||
racquet head forward velocity | tennis | |||
overarm throw | ball velocity at release | baseball swing | ||
softball | ||||
javelin kinematics | javelin throw | |||
sidearm/underarm movements | ball velocity | bowling | ||
cricket bowling | ||||
foil speed | fencing lounge and touche | |||
puck velocity | ice hockey | |||
Body segments | orientation | trunk rotation | aerial manoeuvres in half-pipe snowboard | |
bike riding | ||||
swimming | ||||
trunk inclination | golf swing | |||
running on a track | ||||
snowboarding | ||||
sprint start | ||||
lower limb orientation | alpine skiing | |||
ski jumping | ||||
trampoline jumps | ||||
upper limb orientation | baseball pitching | |||
running on a track | ||||
tennis | ||||
pelvis orientation | climbing | |||
ski jumping | ||||
swimming | ||||
gravity vector removal | running | |||
swimming | ||||
various tasks | ||||
kinematics | postural tremor | air pistol shooting | ||
lower limb vibrations | off-road and road cycling | |||
take off velocity and angle | standing horizontal jump | |||
shoulder, elbow, wrist displacement | baseball pitching | |||
heel lift and forearm acceleration | running | |||
tibial linear acceleration | depth jumps | |||
tibial angular and linear acceleration | instep kick | |||
tibial angular and linear velocity | ||||
pelvis jerk | climbing | |||
joint kinematics | wrist | angular displacement | swimming | |
tennis | ||||
shoulder | angular displacement | running | ||
swimming | ||||
tennis | ||||
elbow | angular displacement | swimming | ||
hip | angular displacement | cycling | ||
horse riding | ||||
karate front kick | ||||
angular velocity | karate front kick | |||
knee | angular displacement | alpine skiing | ||
ski jumping | ||||
snowboarding | ||||
angular velocity | karate front kick | |||
running | ||||
ankle | angular displacement | cycling | ||
ski jumping | ||||
soccer specific tasks | ||||
main joints | angular displacement | trampoline jumps | ||
Dynamics | dynamics | external forces | aerodynamic force | ski jumping stable flight |
dissipative forces | bowling ball | |||
ski racing | ||||
ground reaction forces | ski jumping take-off | |||
ski racing | ||||
springboard during diving | ||||
impact force | straight punch | |||
power | ski racing | |||
joint moments | elbow | baseball pitching | ||
lower limb | instep kick | |||
snowboarding turns |
Device Position | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
He1 (head-helmet) | [68] | [122] | [212,302] | |||
U1 (acromion) | [58] | [303] | [119] | |||
U2 (upper arm posterior) | [80] | [53,54] | [147] | [168,185,267,295,322] | ||
U3 (upper arm) | [331] | [269] | ||||
A1 (fore arm) | [177,247,303] | [64,107,108,158,185,322] | [114,119,161,211,212,278] | |||
W1 (wrist) | [71,323] | [76,295] | [63,80,156,164,261,269,288,332] | [146,147] | [266] | [76,295] |
H1 (third metacarpal bone) | [303] | [53,158] | [301] | [119] | ||
H2 (index finger) | [303] | |||||
H3 (thumb) | [180] | |||||
T1 (sternum, clavicles) | [112] | [115] | [53,54] | [146] | [122] | |
T2 (sternum bottom) | [174,177,274,306] | |||||
T3 (navel) | [166] | |||||
T4 (upper back, T6–T10) | [56,60,63,66,67,73,74,80,86,98,99,101,102,111,130,131,132,135,137,143,152,163,165,175,183,208,225,226,231,232,234,235,240,241,242,249,253,259,274,277,296,297,311,312,317,319] | [128,129,134,136,182,295,326,330,331] | [161,178,210,215,227,266,295,333] | |||
T5 (L1–L3) | [63,84,174,177,184,191,197,223,224,320,321] | [24] | [69,70,192,193,290] | [119,212] | ||
T6 (L4, L5, sacrum, or lower back) | [155] | [61,63,67,72,80,85,110,113,162,170,190,194,196,200,201,203,213,234,237,244,273,304,332] | [147,285] | [41,88,89,90,104,105,106,107,122,168,220,248,251,257,262,263,291] | [114,199,211,238,258,278,281] | |
T7 (5 cm left of L5) | [146] | [159] | ||||
P1 (iliac crest) | [264] | [83,218,219,264,265] | [52] | |||
Th1 (great trochanter-hip) | [147] | [280] | ||||
Th2 (distal thigh) | [126] | [88,89,90,115,273] | [96] | |||
Th3 (frontal thigh) | [52,91,231] | [214,228,238,294] | ||||
Th4 (mid lateral thigh) | [331] | [122] | ||||
S1 (head of fibula) | [117,157,229,230,313] | [248,295] | ||||
S2 (medial shank) | [243] | [62,124,125,126] | [52,88,89,90,91,115,231,256,273,328] | [55,161,211,238] | ||
S3 (frontal shank) | [140,222,228] | [177,240] | [91,122,168] | [214,294] | ||
S4 (ankle) | [148,248,283,294,295] | [269] | [167] | |||
S5 (lateral shank) | [256] | |||||
S6 (lower postural shank) | [256] | [212] | ||||
F1 (shoelace) | [160,209,318] | [87,160,202,209,294,318] | [55,57,114,214,278,295] | |||
F2 (heel) | [118,148,162] | |||||
Moven suit (Xsens Technologies, The Netherlands) (He, T2, U3, A1, H1, Th2/Th4, S5/S6, F1, T6) | [43,75,138,161,188,189,292,300] |
Device position | 1 | 2 | 3 |
B1 (barbell close to handle) | [186] | [65,82,100,123,198,272,310] | [78,289] |
B2 (barbell extremity) | [172] | [150,151,271] | |
B3 (on the smith press) | [305] | ||
B4 (punching bag) | [79] | ||
B5 (weight stack) | [252,284] | ||
St1 (golf shaft) | [181] | ||
St2 (golf lower hand) | [147] | ||
St3 (golf near head) | [147] | ||
St4 (hockey puck) | [206] | [309] | |
St5 (racquet) | [59] | ||
St6 (pistol) | [303] | ||
St7 (on the shot put) | [139] | ||
St8 (frame and target) | [239] | ||
St9 (on the foil) | [329] | ||
St10 (golf on the club head) | [171] | ||
St11 (javelin) | [270] | ||
St12 (baseball/softball) | [221] | ||
L1 (wheelchair wheel) | [94,216,282] | [250,308] | |
L2 (wheelchair frame) | [308] | [71,282,307] | |
L3 (rear bike) | [302] | [330] | |
L4 (rowing seat) | [58] | ||
L5 (rowing oar) | [205,295] | ||
L6 (rowing boat) | [116,205] | [260] | |
L7 (skis) | [88,90,121,231,254,255] | ||
L8 (top of the boat) | [217,275,287] | ||
L9 (on the kayak) | [169] | ||
L10 (on the springboard) | [187] | [173] | |
L11 (roller ski/skate chassis) | [268] | [293] | |
L12 (bike seat) | [95,212] | ||
L13 (bike crank) | [95] | ||
L14 (bike frame) | [331] |
Guidelines for Magnetic and Inertial Measurement Unit Use |
---|
Quality Assessment 1. avoid ferromagnetic disturbances when possible (no iron or magnetic fields) 2. assess accuracy following specific guidelines for sensor spot checks (e.g., [371,372]) |
Calibration 3. re-calibrate accelerometers, gyroscopes [373,374,375], and magnetic sensors [376,377] to improve poor accuracy before each acquisition session when possible 4. carefully perform anatomical calibration, either functional or point-based, especially when assessing joint kinematics [38] |
Fixing 5. avoid restricting the range of movement 6. limit the movement between body and device (avoid tape) 7. for tasks entailing impacts, avoid elastic belts for fixing 8. avoid areas with “wobbling” soft tissues (fat or muscles) and areas close to joints |
Data Processing 9. low-pass filter with various cut-off frequencies depending on the analysed sport task [25,378] 10. use ad hoc algorithms to compensate for drift errors [21,371] 11. compensate ferromagnetic disturbances indoor [334,379] 12. refer to appropriate validation based on reference data or literature that is sport and task-specific 13. interpret data within the limits set by the quality assessment |
© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Camomilla, V.; Bergamini, E.; Fantozzi, S.; Vannozzi, G. Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review. Sensors 2018, 18, 873. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18030873
Camomilla V, Bergamini E, Fantozzi S, Vannozzi G. Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review. Sensors. 2018; 18(3):873. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18030873
Chicago/Turabian StyleCamomilla, Valentina, Elena Bergamini, Silvia Fantozzi, and Giuseppe Vannozzi. 2018. "Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review" Sensors 18, no. 3: 873. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18030873