Citric Acid Injections: An Accessible and Efficient Method for Controlling Outbreaks of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster cf. solaris
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Collection Site and Maintenance Conditions
2.2. Experiment 1: Concentration and Number of Injection Sites
2.3. Experiment 2: Volume
2.4. Experiment 3: Seawater vs Distilled Water
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Experiment 1: Concentration and Number of Injection Sites
Behaviour and Macroscopic Progression
3.2. Experiment 2: Volume
3.3. Experiment 3: Water Type
4. Discussion
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Source | DF | SS | MS | F | P |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Experiment 1: two-way ANCOVA | |||||
Log(Time to Immobility) | |||||
Size | 1 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.18 | 0.677 |
Concentration | 2 | 8.94 | 4.47 | 3.91 | 0.031 * |
Injection sites | 1 | 1.74 | 1.74 | 1.53 | 0.226 |
Error | 30 | 34.23 | 1.14 | ||
Log(Time to Death) | |||||
Size | 1 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.882 |
Concentration | 2 | 1.35 | 0.68 | 2.49 | 0.100 |
Injection sites | 1 | 2.82 | 2.82 | 10.37 | 0.003 * |
Error | 30 | 8.16 | 0.27 | ||
Experiment 2: one-way ANCOVA | |||||
Time to Immobility | |||||
Size | 1 | 196.60 | 196.60 | 0.34 | 0.579 |
Volume | 1 | 23.44 | 23.44 | 0.04 | 0.847 |
Error | 7 | 4070.46 | 581.49 | ||
Time to Death | |||||
Size | 1 | 709.08 | 709.08 | 1.43 | 0.270 |
Volume | 1 | 96.74 | 96.74 | 0.20 | 0.671 |
Error | 7 | 3454.80 | 493.54 | ||
Experiment 3: one-way ANCOVA | |||||
Time to Immobility | |||||
Size | 1 | 61.44 | 61.44 | 0.05 | 0.836 |
Water type | 1 | 800.55 | 800.55 | 0.61 | 0.465 |
Error | 6 | 7878.63 | 1313.11 | ||
Time to Death | |||||
Size | 1 | 367.11 | 367.11 | 0.30 | 0.603 |
Water type | 1 | 1241.10 | 1241.10 | 1.01 | 0.352 |
Error | 6 | 7333.14 | 1222.19 |
Absolute Lethal Dose (LD100) | Time to Death | Advantages | Disadvantages | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Sodium bisulphate | Multiple injections of up to 180 mL [33] of 140 g·L−1 solution [8,9] | Unreported | -Highly effective | -Multiple injections required -Potent oxygen scavenger [8,9] |
Bile salts | 1 × 10 mL injection of 8 g·L−1 solution [10] | ~ 28 h [10] | -Single injection -No known environmental side effects | -Not readily available in remote areas -Quarantine restrictions on access -<0.05 to 0.29 USD per injection [10,15,18,33] |
Cooking salt | 2 × 10 mL injections of 400 g·L−1 solution [13,16] | ~ 48 h [16] | -Readily available -No known environmental side effects -<0.05 USD per COTS [13] | -High quantities required (8 kg/1000 COTS) -Solution preparation requires heating -Precipitation and crystallization [16] |
Vinegar | 2 × 10 mL injections [12,18] or 1 × 25 mL injection [15] | ~30 h [15], ~40 h [12] | -Single injection -Readily available -No known environmental side effects -<0.05 USD per COTS [15] | -High quantities required (20–25 L/1000 COTS) |
Lime juice | 2 × 10 mL injections [15,18] | ~ 20 h [15] | -No known environmental side effects [15] | -High quantities required (20 L/1000 COTS) -Laborious process for juice extraction -Seasonal and not ubiquitously cheap -Perishable |
Powdered Citric acid a | 2 × 10 mL or 4 × 5 mL injections of 90–150 g·L−1 solution | ~ 26 h b | -Readily available, long shelf life -No known environmental side effects -<0.05 USD per COTS a -Easily transportable (180–300 g/1000 COTS) | Multiple injections required |
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Buck, A.C.E.; Gardiner, N.M.; Boström-Einarsson, L. Citric Acid Injections: An Accessible and Efficient Method for Controlling Outbreaks of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster cf. solaris. Diversity 2016, 8, 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/d8040028
Buck ACE, Gardiner NM, Boström-Einarsson L. Citric Acid Injections: An Accessible and Efficient Method for Controlling Outbreaks of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster cf. solaris. Diversity. 2016; 8(4):28. https://doi.org/10.3390/d8040028
Chicago/Turabian StyleBuck, Alexander C. E., Naomi M. Gardiner, and Lisa Boström-Einarsson. 2016. "Citric Acid Injections: An Accessible and Efficient Method for Controlling Outbreaks of the Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Acanthaster cf. solaris" Diversity 8, no. 4: 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/d8040028