A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea

Kim, Young-Soo; Han, Gyu-Il; Kim, Seong-Bin; Lee, Min-Woo; Song, Se-Kyu; Kim, Sang-Geun; Heo, Tae-Im

doi:10.3390/d17060378

Open AccessArticle

A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea

by

Young-Soo Kim

,

Gyu-Il Han

,

Seong-Bin Kim

,

Min-Woo Lee

,

Se-Kyu Song

,

Sang-Geun Kim

and

Tae-Im Heo

^*

Ecological Forest Restoration Office, Baekdudaegan National Arboretum, 2160-53 Munsu-ro, Chunyang-Myeon, Bonghwa-gun 36209, Republic of Korea

^*

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Diversity 2025, 17(6), 378; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17060378

Submission received: 27 March 2025 / Revised: 17 May 2025 / Accepted: 19 May 2025 / Published: 27 May 2025

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 15th Anniversary of Diversity—Biodiversity, Conservation and Ecology of Animals, Plants and Microorganisms)

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Abstract

:

This study evaluated the floristic characteristics and ecological conditions of disturbed sites within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area by analyzing species occurrence and ecological indices according to the region and disturbance type. A total of 515 vascular plant species were recorded, including rare species, alien species, and Korean endemic plants. To assess ecological patterns, the Naturalization Index (NI), Urbanization Index (UI), and Sørensen similarity index were applied. The results showed that Mt. Seoraksan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan had relatively high NI and UI values, while Mt. Jirisan showed a comparatively low UI value. Among disturbance types, the hiking trail (HT) type, located in a high-altitude area with limited accessibility, also recorded lower values. Floristic similarity with reference ecosystems was higher in Mt. Jirisan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan, whereas Mt. Seoraksan exhibited the lowest similarity. The overall similarity between disturbance types was low, and the composition of plant species varied across disturbance types. These results suggest that differences in disturbance intensity, driven by the disturbance type and topographic conditions, influences the floristic composition. The findings of this study can serve as baseline data for developing site-specific restoration strategies for disturbed sites in the future.

Keywords:

Baekdudaegan Protected Area; disturbed sites; forest restoration; ecological indicators; floristic similarity

1. Introduction

Mountain ecosystems around the world play a crucial role in conserving biodiversity by providing habitats for plant species and connecting fragmented landscapes. The Baekdudaegan mountain range, which extends approximately 1600 km from Mt. Baekdusan in the north to Mt. Jirisan in the south, serves as a major ecological corridor on the Korean Peninsula [1]. Often referred to as the “spine of the Korean Peninsula”, this mountainous system holds high ecological and conservation value due to its high elevation, rugged terrain, and relatively well-preserved natural environment [2,3]. Like other prominent mountain systems such as the Alps, the Rockies, and the Himalayas, Baekdudaegan has functioned as a refuge for plant species during past climate changes, playing a key role in maintaining biodiversity at both the regional and global levels [4,5,6,7].

To protect this ecologically significant region, the Korean government designated the Baekdudaegan Protected Area in 2005 under the Baekdudaegan Protection Act. Despite this legal protection, many areas within Baekdudaegan remain degraded or disturbed [8]. Past activities such as deforestation, road construction, and quarrying have caused habitat loss and fragmentation, leading to disruptions in ecosystem function [9,10]. Similar environmental challenges are observed globally, as mountain forests face increasing threats from land-use change, urban expansion, and climate change [11,12,13]. While previous studies have examined vegetation structure [3,14,15,16], the condition of disturbed sites [8,17,18], restoration and monitoring efforts [19,20,21,22,23,24], and the flora of vascular plants in specific areas of Baekdudaegan [1,10,25,26,27,28,29,30], there remains a lack of comprehensive research on how vascular plant diversity varies across different types of disturbed sites in this region. Addressing this research gap is essential not only for conservation efforts within Korea but also for developing ecological restoration strategies applicable to mountain ecosystems worldwide.

Disturbed forest sites commonly undergo secondary succession, during which pioneer species establish themselves and gradually alter species composition over time [31]. These changes can have long-term impacts on the structure and function of forest ecosystems. Effective ecological restoration requires a detailed assessment of current plant diversity in disturbed sites and comparison with relatively undisturbed reference ecosystems, which serve as models for setting restoration targets by offering insights into pre-disturbance species composition and structure [32,33]. Moreover, analyzing species composition across various types of disturbed sites can help elucidate how disturbance intensity influences species occurrence and patterns of ecosystem recovery.

Accordingly, this study investigates how vascular plant diversity and composition differ among various types of disturbed sites within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area and compares these patterns with those observed in nearby reference ecosystems. By applying ecological indices such as the Naturalization Index, Urbanization Index, and Sørensen similarity coefficient, the study seeks to clarify whether current vegetation patterns reflect natural successional recovery or indicate the need for active restoration interventions, including the removal of alien species or habitat enrichment. Specifically, this study aims to (1) analyze vascular plant diversity and species composition across different types of disturbed sites, (2) compare the floristic similarity between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems, and (3) provide scientific insights to support the development of site-specific restoration strategies based on disturbance type and intensity.

Furthermore, the results of this study offer foundational data with wide-ranging applicability, including the development of restoration strategies by disturbance type, ecological indicator-based monitoring systems, and the prioritization of restoration efforts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Site Selection

This study was conducted within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area, designated by the Korean Forest Service in the Second Baekdudaegan Protection Plan (2016–2025) [34]. The study area was divided into five regions: Mt. Jirisan, Mt. Deogyusan, Mt. Songnisan, Mt. Taebaeksan, and Mt. Seoraksan. From 2019 to 2023, disturbed sites were selected annually within each region based on high-resolution aerial imagery (25 cm resolution) provided by the National Geographic Information Institute of Korea, which is updated every two years. In cases where dense forest cover or rugged terrain made it difficult to accurately identify disturbed sites, past aerial images from various domestic platforms were cross-checked to supplement site selection (Figure 1).

The classification of disturbance types was based on field observations and aerial image analysis. These included arable lands, bare lands/grasslands, cutover/restoration area, roads/forest roads, burial grounds, constructions, abandoned quarries, farms, and hiking trails. The number of disturbed sites in each category across the study regions is summarized (Table 1), and the total distribution of disturbance types is presented as a pie chart (Figure 2).

2.2. Field Surveys and Plant Identification

A total of 155 disturbed sites were identified through aerial image analysis. These sites were categorized as arable lands (45 sites), bare lands/grasslands (37 sites), cutover/restoration areas (23 sites), roads/forest roads (19 sites), burial grounds (11 sites), construction sites (7 sites), abandoned quarries (6 sites), farms (4 sites), and hiking trails (3 sites) (Table A1). In this study, the “bare land/grassland” (BL/GL) category was defined as open areas lacking tree and shrub vegetation where the origin of disturbance was not clearly identifiable. These sites were predominantly abandoned agricultural fields, such as former paddies or dry fields, that had been left unmanaged over time. In the ecological context of Korea, shrubland is not recognized as a distinct vegetation type. Therefore, herbaceous-dominated open sites were grouped into this combined category to reflect the typical vegetation structure of post-agricultural or unmanaged lands frequently observed in Korea. Cutover/restoration areas in this study refer to sites where reforestation was conducted primarily for landscape or soil stabilization purposes using species not native to the original vegetation. These areas were not considered ecologically restored and were thus classified as disturbed sites based on their altered plant composition and lack of natural regeneration.

By region, the sites were distributed as follows: Mt. Jirisan (20 sites), Mt. Deogyusan (34 sites), Mt. Songnisan (30 sites), Mt. Taebaeksan (45 sites), and Mt. Seoraksan (26 sites). Field surveys were conducted from July 2019 to August 2024, and vascular plant species composition was recorded at each site. To establish a baseline for ecological restoration, reference ecosystems were selected, and plant species surveys were conducted in these areas using the same methods.

Reference ecosystems refer to healthy forest areas that are relatively undisturbed and where natural conditions are well preserved. These areas were selected within each mountain region based on the presence of stable native plant communities and a very low proportion of alien species. Plant identification was primarily conducted in the field. For vascular plants that could not be identified on-site, images were taken, and samples were collected for further examination in the laboratory. The identification of vascular plants followed Coloured Flora of Korea [35] (p. 914) and [35] (p. 901) as a primary reference. To ensure more precise plant identification, additional references were utilized for each major plant family [36,37,38]. The scientific nomenclature, classification system, and taxonomic arrangement followed Plants of the World Online (POWO) [39]. Cultivated plants were marked with “(c)” next to their common names to distinguish them from native flora. Based on the compiled plant list, endemic plants of the Korean peninsula, red-list plants, alien plants, and invasive plants were identified [40,41,42,43,44,45].

2.3. Data Analysis and Index Calculations

To quantitatively assess plant composition, ecological impact, and site similarity, a set of indices was used. These indices were categorized into three groups: (A) Disturbance and Human Impact Indices, (B) Species Diversity and Evenness Indices, and (C) Site Similarity Indices.

(A): Disturbance and Human Impact Indices.

To evaluate the level of anthropogenic influence on disturbed sites, the following indices were calculated:

▪: Naturalized Index (NI) [46]:

N I = (\frac{N u m b e r o f a l i e n p l a n t s p e c i e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a}{T o t a l n u m b e r o f v a s c u l a r p l a n t s p e c i e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a}) \times 100

This index provides insight into the proportion of non-native species relative to the total plant community, helping to assess the degree of ecosystem disturbance.

▪: Urbanization Index (UI) [47]:

U I = (\frac{N u m b e r o f a l i e n p l a n t s p e c i e s i n t h e s t u d y a r e a}{T o t a l n u m b e r o f a l i e n p l a n t s p e c i e s i n K o r e a}) \times 100

This index measures the extent to which urbanization influences plant composition in disturbed sites.

(B): Site Similarity Analysis.

To compare the species composition between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems, Sørensen’s similarity index was applied:

▪: Sørensen’s Similarity Index (Cs) [48]:

C s = \frac{2 C}{A + B}

where A and B represent the total species in two sites and C is the number of shared species. This index provides insight into the level of similarity between disturbed sites and intact reference ecosystems, aiding in evaluating restoration potential.

(C): Multivariate Analysis.

To further explore variations in species composition across disturbed sites, non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and similarity percentage analysis (SIMPER) were performed using the vegan package (v2.6-10) in R (v4.5.0). Bray–Curtis dissimilarity matrices were calculated using the vegdist function, and NMDS was conducted via the metaMDS function with two dimensions and default parameters. The SIMPER analysis was carried out using the simper function to assess the contribution of individual species to group differences.

▪: Non-metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) [49]:

NMDS was conducted using the Bray–Curtis dissimilarity index, which quantifies differences in species occurrence frequency between sites. The ordination was optimized by minimizing the stress function S, defined as follows:

S = \sqrt{\frac{\sum (d_{i j} - {\hat{d}}_{i j})^{2}}{\sum d_{i j}^{2}}}

▪: $S = S t r e s s v a l u e (l o w e r v a l u e s i n d i c a t e a b e t t e r f i t)$ .
▪: $d_{i j} = O b s e r v e d d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n s a m p l e i a n d j$ .
▪: ${\hat{d}}_{i j} = P r e d i c t e d d i s t a n c e i n t h e r e d u c e d d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e$ .
▪: $A s t r e s s v a l u e b e l o w 0.2 w a s c o n s i d e r e d a n a c c e p t a b l e m o d e l f i t .$
▪: Similarity Percentage Analysis (SIMPER) [50]:

SIMPER analysis was used to determine the species contributing most to the compositional dissimilarity between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems. The contribution of each species k was calculated as follows:

C_{K} = \frac{\sum_{i = 1}^{n} |{\bar{x}}_{k i} - {\bar{x}}_{k j}|}{\sum_{i = 1}^{n} D_{i j}}

▪: $C_{k} = C o n t r i b u t i o n o f s p e c i e s K t o g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s$ .
▪: ${\bar{x}}_{k i} = M e a n a b u n d a n c e o f s p e c i e s k i n g r o u p i$ .
▪: ${\bar{d}}_{k j} = M e a n a b u n d a n c e o f s p e c i e s k i n g r o u p j$ .
▪: $D_{i j} = M e a n B r a y - C u r t i s d i s s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n g r o u p s i a n d j$ .

These indices and analyses collectively provide a comprehensive assessment of plant composition, anthropogenic disturbance, biodiversity balance, and ecosystem similarity across different types of disturbed sites. The results were analyzed to identify patterns in plant composition and evaluate the ecological conditions of disturbed sites within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

3. Results

3.1. Vegetation Characteristics of Disturbed Sites

3.1.1. Floristic Composition of Disturbed Sites

A total of 515 taxa were identified in disturbed sites within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area (Table 2). These taxa included 95 families, 306 genera, 468 species, 18 subspecies, 35 varieties, 2 forms, and 2 hybrids. Pteridophytes comprised 14 taxa (2.7%), gymnosperms 7 taxa (1.3%), dicotyledons 394 taxa (75%), and monocotyledons 110 taxa (21%).

The most dominant families were Asteraceae (67 taxa, 13%), Poaceae (52 taxa, 10.1%), Rosaceae (33 taxa, 6.4%), Fabaceae (32 taxa, 6.2%), and Liliaceae (22 taxa, 4.3%). Among individual species, Artemisia indica Willd. was the most frequently observed, occurring at 118 survey plots, followed by Erigeron annuus (L.) Desf. (106 plots), Rubus crataegifolius Bunge (77 plots), Erigeron canadensis L. (65 plots), and Plantago asiatica L. (60 plots). In contrast, 198 taxa, including Aristolochia manshuriensis Kom., Aquilegia oxysepala Trautv. & C.A.Mey., and Veratrum maackii var. parviflorum (Maxim. ex Miq.) H.Hara, were recorded at only a single survey plot (Table S1).

A comparative analysis of species composition across different types of disturbed sites revealed that heavily disturbed sites were primarily dominated by pioneer species, whereas relatively undisturbed sites exhibited greater species diversity. Notably, in zones with minimal anthropogenic interference, herbaceous plants were more evenly distributed, reflecting higher ecological stability.

3.1.2. Endemic Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

A total of 12 Korean endemic plant species were identified (Table 3). While some species were widely distributed across diverse environments, others were restricted to specific habitats. Populus × tomentiglandulosa T.B.Lee, Anemone koraiensis Nakai, Weigela subsessilis (Nakai) L.H.Bailey, etc., were found at multiple survey plots, indicating relatively broad distribution ranges. In contrast, Clematis heracleifolia DC., Angelica genuflexa Nutt., and Patrinia saniculifolia Hemsl. were recorded at only a single plot, highlighting their highly localized occurrence.

The occurrence of endemic species varied according to disturbance type. Their frequency was higher in the cutover/restoration area, whereas their presence was less common in the construction and farm area. Additionally, some endemic species were identified in locations adjacent to intact forest ecosystems, suggesting ecological connectivity with surrounding habitats.

3.1.3. Rare Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

Four rare plant species were identified (Table 4): Bupleurum euphorbioides Nakai, Rhododendron micranthum Turcz., Lysimachia pentapetala Bunge, and Erythranthe tenellus (Bunge) G.L.Nesom. These species were characterized by small population sizes and highly restricted habitat ranges.

Among them, R. micranthum was recorded at multiple sites and appeared to tolerate a range of environmental conditions. In contrast, B. euphorbioides, L. pentapetala, and E. tenellus were found at only a single location, indicating their extreme habitat specificity.

3.1.4. Alien Plant and Invasive Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

A total of 43 alien plant species were identified (Table A2). The most dominant families among these were Asteraceae (15 taxa, 34.9%), Fabaceae (6 taxa, 14.0%), and Poaceae (6 taxa, 14.0%).

Notably, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., Erigeron canadensis L., and Solidago gigantean Aiton were frequently observed in disturbed sites, where they tended to dominate open habitats. These species demonstrated strong competitive abilities, contributing to the alteration of native plant communities in affected regions.

3.2. Comparative Analysis of Naturalization Index (NI), Urbanization Index (UI), and Species Similarity of Disturbed Sites by Region and Disturbance Type

3.2.1. Comparison of NI and UI Between Disturbed Sites and Reference Ecosystems

The Naturalization Index (NI) and Urbanization Index (UI) were compared across regions (Figure 3). NI was highest in Mt. Seoraksan (11.9%), followed by Mt. Deogyusan (9.0%), Mt. Taebaeksan (8.6%), Mt. Jirisan (8.3%), and Mt. Songnisan (7.5%). UI was highest in Mt. Deogyusan and Mt. Taebaeksan, both at 5.4%, followed by Mt. Seoraksan (4.5%), Mt. Songnisan (4.2%), and Mt. Jirisan (3.2%). While Mt. Seoraksan had the highest NI (11.9%), its UI was lower than that of Mt. Deogyusan and Mt. Taebaeksan. Mt. Jirisan recorded the lowest values for both indices, with an NI of 8.3% and a UI of 3.2%.

By disturbance type, the highest NI was observed in FAs (30.4%), followed by CS (20.3%), BLs/GLs (11.9%), ALs (11.0%), CO/RAs (9.1%), and ROs/FRs (8.1%). For UI, the highest values were found in ALs (7.1%), BLs/GLs (7.0%), and CO/RAs (6.3%), followed by ROs/FRs (4.0%), CS (3.4%), FAs (2.9%), BGs (2.1%), and HTs (0.6%). HTs showed the lowest values in both indices, with an NI of 5.0% and a UI of 0.6%.

The HT type showed clearly lower values in both indices compared to other types, which may be related to its location at elevations above 900 m, where the establishment of non-native plant species is likely to be more limited. The NI was relatively high in FA and CS types, while the UI was comparatively higher in ALs, BLs/GLs, and CO/RAs. These results indicate that the variation in the NI and UI is influenced by the disturbance type and topographic conditions and that the distribution of naturalized and urban-adapted species may differ depending on spatial environmental factors.

3.2.2. Comparison of Sørensen Similarity Index Between Disturbed Sites and Reference Ecosystems by Region and Disturbance Type

The Sørensen similarity index was calculated to compare the composition of plant species between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems in each region. The highest similarity was observed in Mt. Jirisan (0.509), while Mt. Seoraksan exhibited the lowest value (0.322) (Figure 4). These values indicate the degree of overlap in species occurrence between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems and reveal clear differences in similarity among the five regions. In particular, the regions with similarity values exceeding 0.5 suggest relatively higher levels of species-level resemblance, whereas the lower value in Mt. Seoraksan reflects comparatively limited species overlap. These results provide a standardized basis for comparing interregional variation in floristic similarity using a consistent metric.

The Sørensen similarity index was also used to evaluate the floristic similarity between different disturbance types based on species occurrence data. Most similarity values ranged from the 0.1 s to the low 0.2 s. The highest similarity was observed between the BL/GL and CO/RA types (0.268), followed by CO/RAs–ROs/FRs (0.186), CO/RAs–BGs (0.185), and ROs/FRs–BGs (0.159). Lower similarity values were found in combinations such as BLs/GLs–BGs (0.158), BLs/GLs–ROs/FRs (0.180), and ROs/FRs–CS (0.148) (Figure 5). The generally low values across most combinations indicate considerable variation in species composition among disturbance types. The CO/RA type showed relatively higher similarity with multiple other types, whereas the BL/GL type showed variability in similarity depending on the pairing. These findings quantitatively reflect the differences in plant species composition that result from varying disturbance causes and environmental conditions.

3.3. Analysis Using Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS)

3.3.1. Analysis of Total Flora by Disturbed Site Type (NMDS and Cluster Analysis)

To compare the total floristic composition across different disturbed site types, non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) and hierarchical cluster analysis based on Bray–Curtis distances were conducted. The results revealed distinct patterns in floristic composition depending on the type of disturbance, with some site types exhibiting high similarities (Figure 6). NMDS analysis indicated that arable land, bare land/grassland, and cutover/restoration areas formed relatively close clusters, reflecting similar floristic trends among these types. In contrast, roads/forest roads, abandoned quarries, construction sites, and hiking trails were more dispersed, indicating distinct differences in floristic composition.

Notably, abandoned quarries and construction sites were positioned at a considerable distance from other types along the NMDS axes, highlighting their unique plant compositions. Similarly, hiking trails were distinctly separated, suggesting that their flora exhibits independent characteristics rather than aligning closely with other site types.

Additionally, a hierarchical cluster analysis based on Bray–Curtis distances was performed to compare floristic composition at the community level, revealing distinct major groups by type (Figure 7). The cluster analysis showed that arable land, bare land/grassland, and cutover/restoration areas clustered together at the shortest distances, indicating high floristic similarity among these types. In contrast, hiking trails, abandoned quarries, and construction sites formed distinct clusters, reflecting independent floristic compositions. Particularly, hiking trails formed the most distinct cluster with the highest distance value, suggesting a unique floristic composition. Likewise, abandoned quarries and construction sites remained at considerable distances from other types, further emphasizing their distinct plant communities.

Furthermore, the similarity percentage (SIMPER) analysis was conducted to identify dominant species contributing to the floristic composition of each site type (Figure 8). The analysis revealed that species such as Artemisia indica, Erigeron annuus, Rubus crataegifolius Bunge, and Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg. were frequently observed in arable land, bare land/grassland, and cutover/restoration areas. In contrast, species such as Equisetum arvense, Commelina communis, and Setaria viridis were more prevalent in roads/forest roads, abandoned quarries, and construction sites.

Notably, the high frequency of certain species in abandoned quarries and construction sites underscores their distinct floristic compositions.

3.3.2. Analysis of Alien Plant Occurrence by Disturbed Site Type (NMDS and Cluster Analysis)

To examine variations in alien plant occurrence by the disturbed site type, an NMDS and hierarchical cluster analysis based on Bray–Curtis distances were performed. The results identified clear trends in alien plant composition across site types, with some exhibiting high similarity to others (Figure 9). The NMDS analysis demonstrated that arable land, bare land/grassland, and cutover/restoration areas formed closely positioned clusters, indicating similar patterns in alien plant occurrence. Conversely, roads/forest roads, abandoned quarries, construction sites, and hiking trails were positioned at greater distances from other types. Among these, arable land and bare land/grassland types were the most closely positioned, suggesting nearly identical alien plant compositions. Restoration areas also clustered nearby, indicating similar patterns among these three site types.

On the other hand, abandoned quarries, construction sites, and roads/forest roads were distinctly separated, confirming their unique compositions. Hiking trails also exhibited independent distributions without clustering closely with other types.

The hierarchical cluster analysis also distinguished major groups based on Bray–Curtis distances (Figure 10). The cluster analysis revealed that arable land, bare land/grassland, and cutover/restoration areas formed a tightly grouped cluster, indicating a high degree of similarity in alien plant composition. Conversely, hiking trails, abandoned quarries, and construction sites formed distinct clusters, suggesting markedly different compositions. Notably, hiking trails formed the most distinct cluster with the highest distance value, highlighting their unique alien plant assemblages. Abandoned quarries and construction sites also exhibited high distance values, further confirming their independent floristic characteristics.

Furthermore, a SIMPER analysis was conducted to compare the dominant alien plant species in each site type (Figure 11). The analysis showed that Erigeron annuus (L.) Desf., Erigeron canadensis L., Oenothera biennis L., and Taraxacum officinale F.H.Wigg. were dominant in arable land, bare land/grassland, and restoration areas. Conversely, species such as Trifolium repens L., Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., and Oxalis corniculata L. had higher contributions in roads/forest roads, abandoned quarries, and construction sites.

4. Discussion

4.1. Floristic Characteristics and Ecological Value of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

The Baekdudaegan Protected Area serves as a major ecological axis across the Korean peninsula, where the interaction of climate and topography gives rise to unique biological characteristics. In this study, a total of 515 species of vascular plants were identified in disturbed sites across the entire Baekdudaegan region, indicating that various vascular plants continue to be distributed in this area despite the influences of human activities. The diverse topography and climatic variation among regions within the Baekdudaegan appear to contribute to the formation of various plant habitats. Certain plant species, such as Weigela subsessilis and Populus × tomentiglandulosa, were found in relatively stable forest environments with limited human disturbance. In contrast, disturbance-tolerant species like Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Erigeron annuus were frequently observed in open, disturbed habitats such as roadside margins and former agricultural lands.

These ecological characteristics are also commonly observed in mountainous ecosystems of temperate alpine regions. Such mountainous areas often exhibit a high proportion of endemic species and function as ecological corridors that facilitate species migration and habitat shifts, playing a critical role in biodiversity conservation [51]. The major plant families identified included Asteraceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae, and Fabaceae. Species in the Asteraceae family are known to adapt well to disturbed environments and tend to establish quickly, while Poaceae and Fabaceae contribute to vegetation recovery through ecological functions such as soil stabilization and nitrogen fixation [52]. These families have also been reported to dominate most grassland environments [53]. In addition, the distribution of endemic and rare plant species identified in this study varied depending on habitat characteristics and types of disturbance. Some species, such as Populus × tomentiglandulosa T.B.Lee and Weigela subsessilis (Nakai) L.H.Bailey, were found across relatively wide areas while others like Patrinia saniculifolia Hemsl. and Bupleurum euphorbioides Nakai were restricted to limited habitats. These species may respond sensitively to environmental changes, and continued human disturbance could negatively impact the stability of their populations [54]. This trend is consistent with previous findings showing that the distribution ranges of certain alpine species are shrinking, highlighting the need to establish long-term conservation strategies [55].

Meanwhile, the presence of alien plant species can pose a potential threat to the ecological stability of the protected area. A total of 43 alien species were identified in this study, and species such as Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Erigeron canadensis, and Solidago gigantea showed relatively high frequencies in disturbed sites. These alien species, characterized by rapid growth and dispersal capacity, may alter the composition of native vegetation [56]. In particular, they tended to be more prevalent in areas with intensive human activity, such as roadsides and quarry sites [57]. Similar invasion patterns have been reported in other regions beyond Korea, including North America, Europe, and Australia, and the role of human disturbance and spatial connectivity in facilitating alien species expansion is a common trend worldwide [58]. Accordingly, regular monitoring and appropriate management measures are required to prevent the spread of alien species within the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

4.2. Interpretation of Regional and Disturbance-Type Differences Based on Ecological Indices

This study compared the characteristics of disturbed sites by region and disturbance type using the Naturalization Index (NI), Urbanization Index (UI), and Sørensen similarity index. The results showed that the distribution of non-native plant species and the similarity in species composition with the reference ecosystems varied depending on the region and disturbance type. Mt. Seoraksan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan recorded relatively high values for both the NI and UI, which may indicate that these regions have been more exposed to human activities. In contrast, Mt. Jirisan showed the lowest UI value, suggesting that the influence of urbanization-related factors may have been less prominent in this area. By the disturbance type, the NI was highest in FAs and CS, while the UI was relatively high in ALs, BLs/GLs, and CO/RAs. The HT type recorded the lowest values for both indices, which can be attributed to its location in high-altitude areas where the introduction of non-native species is limited and human access is relatively restricted.

The Sørensen similarity index by region showed that Mt. Jirisan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan had values greater than 0.5, indicating a higher degree of similarity with the reference ecosystems. In this study, the reference ecosystems were defined as relatively undisturbed forest areas that maintain stable native vegetation communities with minimal anthropogenic influence. Although not entirely pristine, these sites serve as ecologically meaningful baselines for evaluating the degree of species composition change in disturbed areas. Their inclusion allows for a more accurate interpretation of species similarity metrics and the development of restoration goals aligned with the original ecological context. Mt. Seoraksan had the lowest value of 0.322. These differences appear to be influenced by various factors, including local environmental conditions, disturbance intensity, and the ecological distance from the reference ecosystems. In the comparison of similarity between disturbance types, most combinations showed low values. CO/RAs displayed a relatively higher similarity with other types, whereas FAs and HTs had consistently low similarity. This indicates that the composition of species in disturbed sites varies significantly depending on the disturbance type. The indices used in this study are useful for comparing the conditions of disturbed sites based on observed species and identifying differences between disturbance types. However, these indices alone are not sufficient to comprehensively assess the ecological condition of disturbed areas. Additional factors such as soil characteristics and surrounding vegetation structure should also be considered to obtain a more complete understanding.

4.3. Comparative Analysis of Plant Communities by Disturbance Type in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

An analysis of plant species composition across different disturbance types in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area revealed distinct patterns depending on the intensity and nature of the disturbance. According to the NMDS and cluster analyses, arable lands, bare lands/grasslands, and cutover/restoration areas shared similar species composition, whereas roads/forest roads and abandoned quarries exhibited clearly differentiated patterns. This indicates that vegetation responds differently depending on the type and severity of the disturbance and that the pace and direction of recovery may vary, especially in areas experiencing continuous or intense physical impacts [59].

In arable lands and cutover/restoration areas, fast-establishing herbaceous species such as Erigeron annuus, Artemisia indica, and Taraxacum officinale were frequently observed. These species tend to dominate the early stages of succession by rapidly colonizing exposed soil and open spaces following disturbance. Such herbaceous-dominated vegetation change is a typical ecological feature commonly observed in a variety of disturbed environments [60].

In contrast, roads/forest roads and abandoned quarries, where severe and ongoing physical disturbances occur, showed species composition patterns that were clearly distinct from other disturbance types. In some survey plots, alien species such as Erigeron canadensis and Ambrosia artemisiifolia were recorded. These areas are generally known to develop conditions unfavorable for restoration, in which invasive species are more easily introduced and native species establishment is limited [61]. Under such conditions, vegetation recovery tends to be delayed, and ecological diversity may decline due to the dominance of a few opportunistic species. These differences in species composition among disturbance types are consistent with general patterns reported in ecological restoration studies. It is widely recognized that herbaceous species dominate the early stages of post-disturbance succession, followed by the gradual establishment of shrubs and tree species over time [62]. The intensity and persistence of the disturbance significantly influence the speed and stability of vegetation recovery, and similar responses are likely to occur in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Therefore, restoring disturbed sites within the Baekdudaegan should be guided by disturbance-specific characteristics of species composition and recovery potential. In areas such as arable lands and cutover/restoration areas, where natural recovery is relatively feasible, strategies that minimize human intervention and encourage natural succession may be appropriate. In contrast, in highly disturbed sites such as roadsides and quarries, where conditions unfavorable to recovery are more likely to develop, active ecological restoration measures, such as invasive species management, soil rehabilitation, and the introduction of target plant species, should be implemented in parallel. These differentiated restoration strategies can enhance the effectiveness of vegetation recovery and contribute to the long-term maintenance of the Baekdudaegan’s ecological functions.

Specifically, sites with high NI and UI values and low Sørensen similarity to reference ecosystems—such as Mt. Seoraksan and areas classified as construction or quarry sites—are more likely to require active interventions, including invasive species control and soil rehabilitation. In contrast, sites with lower disturbance levels and higher similarity values may benefit from minimal management focused on monitoring and natural regeneration. This gradient-based approach to restoration planning enhances efficiency and aligns management intensity with ecological need.

4.4. Site-Specific Restoration Strategies and Sustainable Management Approaches for Disturbed Sites in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

The patterns of distinct types of floristic composition identified in this study across different types of disturbance provide a valuable scientific basis for developing systematic restoration strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area. These findings are not limited to local significance but are closely related to environmental changes and restoration challenges shared by forest ecosystems globally.

Arable lands, bare lands/grasslands, and cutover/restoration areas often lack artificial structures or land modification techniques, and their relatively small size facilitates natural colonization by surrounding vegetation without intensive human intervention. Therefore, in such areas, a restoration strategy that minimizes artificial input and promotes natural succession can be effective. This approach, which utilizes the inherent self-recovery capacity of ecosystems, has been widely applied in international forest restoration practices [63].

In contrast, areas with more intensive or ongoing disturbances—such as road margins, quarries, and construction sites—tend to exhibit limited potential for natural recovery. Quarry sites in particular often suffer from severe disturbance of the soil structure and chemistry, restricting plant establishment and facilitating the spread of invasive species. In these areas, more active and technical restoration measures, including invasive species control, soil improvement, and the introduction of appropriate restoration species, are required. Similar strategies have proven effective in the restoration of quarries, desertified lands, and mined areas in various international contexts [64]. These differentiated restoration approaches can help maintain the Baekdudaegan’s role as an ecological buffer against long-term environmental changes such as climate change. In East Asia, where endemic species are prevalent and forest ecosystems are often adjacent to densely populated regions, balancing conservation and restoration efforts is increasingly important [65]. For example, in regions with similar forest environments, such as the Qinling Mountains in China and the Japanese Alps in Japan, the findings of this study may serve as a useful reference for developing sustainable restoration strategies.

The Baekdudaegan represents a major mountain system that runs longitudinally across the Korean peninsula and forms a continuous ecological corridor comprising diverse plant communities. Its structural similarity to other mountainous regions in East Asia suggests that comparative studies and shared disturbance frameworks, such as ecosystem monitoring standards, could support more effective biodiversity conservation on a wider geographical scale. Furthermore, the restoration approaches proposed in this study align with the principles of the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) [66]. This global initiative emphasizes the importance of context-specific and adaptive strategies that consider both the causes of ecosystem disturbance and local environmental conditions. It also promotes restoration efforts that not only re-establish vegetation but also restore ecosystem functions and improve human well-being.

5. Conclusions

This study investigated the occurrence of vascular plant species and ecological indices across disturbed sites in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area, classified by the region and disturbance type. A total of 515 species were recorded, including rare species, alien species, and Korean endemic plants, highlighting the region’s rich biodiversity and conservation value. The application of the Naturalization Index (NI), Urbanization Index (UI), and Sørensen similarity index revealed differences in the proportion of alien species and species composition similarity with reference ecosystems. Mt. Seoraksan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan exhibited relatively high NI and UI values, indicating greater anthropogenic disturbance, whereas Mt. Jirisan recorded a low UI value, and high-altitude HT sites showed a limited establishment of alien species due to environmental constraints. Sørensen index values exceeded 0.5 for Mt. Jirisan, Mt. Deogyusan, and Mt. Taebaeksan, reflecting relatively high similarity with the reference sites, while Mt. Seoraksan showed the lowest similarity. Plant community composition varied significantly across disturbance types, emphasizing the influence of both regional and disturbance-specific factors.

These findings suggest that restoration strategies should be tailored to the ecological context of each site. Ecological indices can help differentiate sites suitable for passive succession from those requiring active intervention, such as invasive species removal or soil improvement. Overall, the restoration framework applied in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area offers a practical model for sustainable forest management in the East Asian region. Future efforts may focus on the development of ecosystem service-based assessment indicators, climate-responsive vegetation management, and biodiversity-centered spatial planning, which will be critical for preserving the long-term ecological value and functionality of the Baekdudaegan landscape.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/d17060378/s1, Table S1: The list of vascular plants in disturbed sites and reference ecosystems of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.-S.K., G.-I.H. and T.-I.H.; methodology, Y.-S.K. and G.-I.H.; formal analysis, Y.-S.K., G.-I.H. and S.-K.S.; investigation, Y.-S.K., S.-B.K., M.-W.L., S.-K.S. and S.-G.K.; data curation, S.-B.K. and M.-W.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.-S.K.; writing—review and editing, Y.-S.K. and G.-I.H.; visualization, Y.-S.K. and G.-I.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Baekdudaegan National Arboretum (BDNA), under the project titled “Development of restoration models by degraded type through investigation and diagnostic evaluation of forest degraded areas in Baekdudaegan” (Project No. 2025-KS-OB-1-2-1-04).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable. The study involved field surveys of vegetation and plant communities and did not involve any human participants or animal subjects.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available in the article and Supplementary Materials.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. The list of investigation sites for field study in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area. Disturbance type is A: arable land, B: bare land/grassland, C: cutover/restoration area, D: road/forest road, E: burial ground, F: construction, G: abandoned quarry, H: farm, I: hiking trail.

Region	Address	Type
Mt. Jirisan region	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ibaek-myeon Yangga-ri san 19-1	A
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ibaek-myeon Yangga-ri san 10	B
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Unbong-eup Janggyo-ri san 100-2	B
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Beonam-myeon Yujeong-ri san 276	C
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Beonam-myeon Yujeong-ri 236-5	C
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ayeong-myeon Agok-ri san 86-10	C
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Beonam-myeon Yujeong-ri san 184	B
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ayeong-myeon Agok-ri san 14	A
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ayeong-myeon Inpung-ri san 13	A
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Beonam-myeon Nongok-ri san 91-2	B
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ayeong-myeon Ildae-ri san 83	A
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Ayeong-myeon Ildae-ri san 85	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Baekjeon-myeon Unsan-ri 1168	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Baekjeon-myeon Unsan-ri 1181	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Seosang-myeon Sangnam-ri san 114-6	A
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Baekjeon-myeon Daean-ri san 225	A
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Beonam-myeon Yujeong-ri san 225	A
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Unbong-eup Chunhyang-ri san 22-10	C
	Jeonbuk-do Namwon-si Unbong-eup Janggyo-ri san 114-3	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Baekjeon-myeon Daean-ri san 214	C
Mt. Deogyusan region	Chungcheongbuk-do Boeun-gun Songnisan-myeon Mansu-ri 9-2	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwanam-myeon Pyeong-on-ri san 30-1	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sanggok-ri 485-5	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sanggok-ri san 59-2	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sanggok-ri san 59-12	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwadong-myeon Eosan-ri san 123	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Moseo-myeon Seoksan-ri san 23	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Moseo-myeon Sojeong-ri san 62	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Moseo-myeon Daepo-ri san 107	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Moseo-myeon Daepo-ri 216-1	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Moseo-myeon Sojeong-ri san 84-1	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Gongseong-myeon Bongsan-ri san 18-4	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Daehang-myeon Jurye-ri san 127	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Buhang-myeon Daeya-ri san 87-1	B
	Jeonbuk-do Muju-gun Seolcheon-myeon Micheon-ri san 1	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Buhang-myeon Eojeon-ri san 122-2	A
	Gyeongsangnam-do Geochang-gun Goje-myeon Bonggye-ri 1077-2	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Yeongdong-gun Maegok-myeon Eochon-ri san 106-1	I
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Daehang-myeon Unsu-ri san 84-1	I
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Daehang-myeon Jurye-ri san 1	I
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sanggok-ri san 160-1	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwadong-myeon Eosan-ri san 123	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwadong-myeon Eosan-ri san 121	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sanggok-ri 508-1	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Modong-myeon Deokgok-ri san 33	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Eomo-myeon Neungchi-ri san 99	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Yeongdong-gun Maegok-myeon Okjeon-ri san 14-2	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Sangju-si Hwaseo-myeon Sinbong-ri 20	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Gimcheon-si Daehang-myeon Hyangcheon-ri san 163-1	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Yeongdong-gun Maegok-myeon Eochon-ri 18	B
	Jeonbuk-do Muju-gun Mupung-myeon Geumpyeong-ri 263-13	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Geochang-gun Goje-myeon Bonggye-ri 1081	B
	Gyeongsangnam-do Hamyang-gun Seosang-myeon Sangnam-ri san 9-1	C
	Jeonbuk-do Jangsu-gun Janggye-myeon Myeongdeok-ri san 154-1	A
Mt. Songnisan region	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Aedang-ri san 2	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Aedang-ri 923	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Punggi-eup Sucheol-ri 289	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Danyang-gun Daegang-myeon Sadong-ri san 1-1	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Saengdal-ri san 3	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Jecheon-si Deoksan-myeon Dogi-ri san 102-4	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-ri san 92	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Jungpyeong-ri 485-2	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Seokmundong-gil 418-2	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Chamsaegol-gil 417-70	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Punggi-eup Sucheol-ri 418-1	A
	Chungcheongbuk-do Danyang-gun Daegang-myeon Sadonggyegok-ro 202-40	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yecheon-gun Hyoja-myeon Yongdu-ri 10	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Geumcheon-ro 2890-42	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Pyeongcheon-ri 669	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Jeokseong-ri San 112-7	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yecheon-gun Hyoja-myeon Baekseok-gil 236-1	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Dansan-myeon Jwaseok-ri 194	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Jeokseong-ri San 108-4	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-ri 605-1	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Gaeun-eup Daeya-ro 826-19	E
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Cheongcheon-myeon Samsong-ri 45-4	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Mulya-myeon Ojeon-ri 1-4	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-gil 555	C
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Yeonpung-myeon Ihwaryeong-ro 561	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Gaeun-eup Wanjang-ri San 63-25	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Sangseok-gil 132-69	G
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Yeonpung-myeon Jujin-ri 442	G
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Cheongcheon-myeon Samsong-ri 1111-1111	G
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Pyeongcheon-ri 864	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Aedang-ri san 2	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Aedang-ri 923	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Punggi-eup Sucheol-ri 289	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Danyang-gun Daegang-myeon Sadong-ri san 1-1	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Saengdal-ri san 3	B
	Chungcheongbuk-do Jecheon-si Deoksan-myeon Dogi-ri san 102-4	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-ri san 92	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Jungpyeong-ri 485-2	B
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Seokmundong-gil 418-2	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Chunyang-myeon Chamsaegol-gil 417-70	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Punggi-eup Sucheol-ri 418-1	A
	Chungcheongbuk-do Danyang-gun Daegang-myeon Sadonggyegok-ro 202-40	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yecheon-gun Hyoja-myeon Yongdu-ri 10	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Geumcheon-ro 2890-42	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Pyeongcheon-ri 669	A
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Jeokseong-ri San 112-7	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yecheon-gun Hyoja-myeon Baekseok-gil 236-1	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Yeongju-si Dansan-myeon Jwaseok-ri 194	D
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Jeokseong-ri San 108-4	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-ri 605-1	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Gaeun-eup Daeya-ro 826-19	E
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Cheongcheon-myeon Samsong-ri 45-4	E
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Bonghwa-gun Mulya-myeon Ojeon-ri 1-4	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Gwaneum-gil 555	C
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Yeonpung-myeon Ihwaryeong-ro 561	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Gaeun-eup Wanjang-ri San 63-25	C
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Dongno-myeon Sangseok-gil 132-69	G
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Yeonpung-myeon Jujin-ri 442	G
	Chungcheongbuk-do Goesan-gun Cheongcheon-myeon Samsong-ri 1111-1111	G
	Gyeongsangbuk-do Mungyeong-si Mungyeong-eup Pyeongcheon-ri 864	A
Mt. Taebaeksan region	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Changjuk-dong 9-384	B
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Hoenggye-ri San 1-119	B
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Mokgye-ri San 460-1	B
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Gwinaemigol 1-gil 43	A
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Hwajeon-dong 143-27	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Okgye-myeon Sangye-ri San 347	A
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Hoenggye-ri San 2-1	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Daegi-ri San 1-12	D
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Wangsan-ri San 2-10	D
	Gangwon-do Samcheok-si Hajang-myeon Beoncheon-ri San 57-2	D
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Mokgye-ri San 460-82	D
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Daegwallyeongmaru-gil 483-32	H
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Kkotbatyangji-gil 458-23	H
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Kkotbatyangji-gil 708-9	H
	Gangwon-do Donghae-si Samhwa-dong 714	E
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Seongsan-myeon Eoheul-ri San 1-29	E
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Hasami-dong San 220-75	E
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Sangsami-dong San 65-2	C
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Daegi-ri San 1-13	C
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Songhyeon-ri San 242-58	C
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Daegi-ri San 1-13	C
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Songhyeon-ri 86-1	C
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Okgye-myeon Namyang-ri San 287	G
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Yeongok-myeon Samsan-ri San 1-1	G
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Wangsan-ri San 1	G
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Byeongnae-ri San 1-2	A
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Byeongnae-ri 101-5	C
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Hoenggye-ri San 1-122	D
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Hoenggye-ri San 1-241	A
	Gangwon-do Jeongseon-gun Imge-myeon Imge-ri San 8	A
	Gangwon-do Samcheok-si Hajang-myeon Jungbong-ri San 1	A
	Gangwon-do Pyeongchang-gun Daegwallyeong-myeon Kkotbatyangji-gil 458-23	H
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Hasami-dong 524-45	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Daegi-ri 1948	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Wangsan-myeon Songhyeon-ri San 242-63	A
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Sangsami-dong San 65-2	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Okgye-myeon Sangye-ri 1219-1	A
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri San 1-61	D
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Yeongok-myeon Samsan-ri 1226-2	A
	Gangwon-do Gangneung-si Seongsan-myeon Eoheul-ri San 1-36	B
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri San 1	A
	Gangwon-do Taebaek-si Taebaeksan-ro 4150	F
	Gangwon-do Samcheok-si Singi-myeon Daegi-ri San 2	A
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri 55-3	A
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri 5	A
Mt. Seoraksan region	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Heulliryeong 1-gil 63	F
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Heulli San 45-5	F
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeongjigeori-gil 318	F
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri San 1-38	F
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jochimnyeong-ro 2250	F
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Toseong-myeon Wonam-ri San 1-33	F
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Heulli San 1-118	B
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Buk-myeon Yongdae-ri San 12-11	B
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jindong-ri 133-6	B
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Seolpibat-gil 630-26	B
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jindong-ri 220	B
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Heulli 20-34	A
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jindong-ri 189	A
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jindong-ri San 71	A
	Gangwon-do Yangyang-gun Seo-myeon Seorim-ri San 1-5	A
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri San 1	A
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Heulli San 1-92	D
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Ganseong-eup Seonyusil-ri San 1	D
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Girin-myeon Jindong-ri San 71-79	D
	Gangwon-do Yangyang-gun Seo-myeon Yeongdeok-ri San 81-1	D
	Gangwon-do Yangyang-gun Seo-myeon Bukam-ri San 1	D
	Gangwon-do Inje-gun Buk-myeon Yongdae-ri San 12-63	D
	Gangwon-do Hongcheon-gun Nae-myeon Myeonggae-ri San 1	E
	Gangwon-do Goseong-gun Toseong-myeon Wonam-ri San 1-1	C
	Gangwon-do Yangyang-gun Seo-myeon Bukam-ri San 1	A
	Gangwon-do Yangyang-gun Seo-myeon Osaek-ri San 1-75	D

Table A2. Alien plants and invasive plants in the disturbed sites of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area; L-f: life form, Orig.: origin, Freq.: frequency, 1: annual, 2: biennial, Pe.: perennial, As: Asia, nA: North America, sA: South America, Eu: Europe, Af: Africa, Oc: Oceania, Arc.: archaeophyte, IAP (CAP): casual alien plant, IAP (NP): naturalized plant, WS: widespread, SS: serious spread, CS: concerned spread, MS: minor spread, PS: potential spread, *: invasive plants.

Family Name	Scientific Name	L-f	Orig.	Type	Degree	Freq.
Polygonaceae	Rumex acetosella L. *	Pe.	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	WS	9
	Rumex crispus L.	Pe.	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	WS	6
	Rumex obtusifolius L.	Pe.	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	MS	4
Amaranthaceae	Chenopodium album L.	1	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	CS	28
	Oxybasis glauca (L.) S.Fuentes, Uotila & Borsch	1	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	SS	1
	Dysphania pumilio (R.Br.) Mosyakin & Clemants	1	Oc	IAP (NP)	PS	1
Amaranthaceae	Amaranthus blitum subsp. Oleraceus (L.) Costea	1	Eu	Arc.	-	3
Phytolaccaceae	Phytolacca americana L.	Pe.	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	WS	11
Caryophyllaceae	Stellaria media (L.) Vill.	1	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	WS	1
Brassicaceae	Thlaspi arvense L.	2	As, Eu	Arc.	-	1
Fabaceae	Lotus corniculatus L.	Pe.	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Medicago lupulina L.	2	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	MS	1
	Medicago sativa L.	Pe.	Eu	IAP (NP)	CS	6
	Trifolium hybridum L.	Pe.	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Trifolium pratense L.	Pe.	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	SS	5
	Trifolium repens L.	Pe.	Af	IAP (NP)	WS	35
Geraniaceae	Geranium carolinianum L.	1	nA	IAP (NP)	PS	1
Oxalidaceae	Oxalis corniculata L.	Pe.	nA	Arc.	-	14
Euphorbiaceae	Euphorbia maculata L.	1	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	SS	1
Onagraceae	Oenothera biennis L.	2	nA	IAP (NP)	WS	55
Convolvulaceae	Cuscuta campestris Yunck.	1	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	CS	1
Solanaceae	Solanum nigrum L.	Pe.	Af, Eu	Arc.	-	1
Asteraceae	Ageratina altissima (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. *	Pe.	nA	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. *	1	nA	IAP (NP)	WS	16
	Bidens frondosa L.	1	nA	IAP (NP)	WS	28
	Erigeron canadensis L.	2	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	WS	65
	Erechtites hieraciifolius (L.) Raf. ex DC.	1	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	WS	3
	Erigeron annuus (L.) Desf.	2	nA	IAP (NP)	WS	106
	Erigeron sumatrensis Retz.	2	sA	IAP (NP)	MS	5
	Erigeron philadelphicus L.	Pe.	nA	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Erigeron strigosus Muhl. ex Willd.	2	nA	IAP (NP)	MS	8
	Galinsoga quadriradiata Ruiz & Pav.	1	nA, sA	IAP (NP)	WS	23
	Matricaria discoidea DC.	1	nA	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Senecio vulgaris L.	1	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	SS	4
	Symphyotrichum pilosum (Willd.) G.L.Nesom *	Pe.	nA	IAP (NP)	SS	15
	Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg.	Pe.	Eu	IAP (NP)	WS	41
	Tragopogon dubius Scop.	2	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	PS	1
Poaceae	Alopecurus pratensis L.	Pe.	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	PS	1
	Bromus commutatus Schrad.	2	Af, As, Eu	IAP (CAP)	PS	1
	Dactylis glomerata L.	Pe.	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	WS	8
	Lolium arundinaceum (Schreb.) Darbysh.	Pe.	Af, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	SS	5
	Lolium multiflorum Lam.	2	As, Eu	IAP (NP)	CS	1
	Poa pratensis L.	Pe.	nA, As, Eu	IAP (NP)	SS	7
Cannabaceae	Humulus scandens (Lour.) Merr. *	-	-	-	-	41

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Figure 1. The location of the investigated sites in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area. The map shows the Baekdudaegan mountain range is divided into five regions: Seoraksan (red), Taebaeksan (orange), Songnisan (green), Deogyusan (blue), and Jirisan (purple). Within each region, disturbance sites are classified by type using different colored dots.

Figure 2. The regional distribution of disturbed sites in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Figure 3. A comparison of the Naturalization Index (NI) and Urbanization Index (UI) across five mountain regions (left) and eight disturbance types (right), with the NI represented in yellow and UI in orange. The values indicate the proportion of each index based on species occurrence in disturbed sites.

Figure 4. Sørensen similarity index between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems by region. The Sørensen similarity index was calculated based on species occurrence between disturbed sites and reference ecosystems in each region. The index ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater similarity in species composition.

Figure 5. Sørensen similarity index between disturbance types based on species occurrence; AL: arable land, BL/GL: bare land/grassland, CO/RA: cutover/restoration area, RO/FR: road/forest road, BG: burial ground, CS: construction, AQ: abandoned quarry, FA: farm, HT: hiking trail.

Figure 6. NMDS analysis results illustrating differences in total floristic composition by disturbed site type. Each point represents a survey site, with closer proximity indicating a higher similarity in flora between regions.

Figure 7. Hierarchical cluster analysis results depicting floristic similarity among disturbed site types, where closely grouped types share higher compositional similarity based on Bray–Curtis distances.

Figure 8. SIMPER analysis results indicating the major species contributing to the total floristic composition by the disturbed site type.

Figure 9. NMDS analysis results illustrating variations in alien plant composition by disturbed site type. Points represent survey sites, with closer proximity indicating higher compositional similarity.

Figure 10. Hierarchical cluster analysis results illustrating similarity in alien plant composition among disturbed site types.

Figure 11. SIMPER analysis results illustrating the dominant alien plant species contributing to floristic composition by the disturbed site type.

Table 1. The status of the disturbance types and number of sites by region in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Location	AL	BL/GL	CO/RA	RO/FR	BG	CS	AQ	FA	HT
Mt. Jirisan	7	8	5	-	-	-	-	-	-
Mt. Deogyusan	6	12	7	3	3	-	-	-	3
Mt. Songnisan	8	8	4	3	4	-	3	-	-
Mt. Taebaeksan	18	4	6	6	3	1	3	4	-
Mt. Seoraksan	6	5	1	7	1	6	-	-	-
Total	45	37	23	19	11	7	6	4	3

AL: Arable land, BL/GL: bare land/grassland, CO/RA: cutover/restoration area, RO/FR: road/forest road, BG: burial ground, CS: construction, AQ: abandoned quarry, FA: farm, HT: hiking trail.

Table 2. Vascular plant species composition in disturbed sites of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Taxa	Family	Genus	Species	Subspecies	Variety	Forma	Hybrid	Total
Pteridophyta	6	11	14	-	-	-	-	14
Gymnospermae	2	5	7	-	-	-	-	7
Angiospermae	81	287	459	15	16	1	3	494
Dicotyledons	72	228	358	13	13	1	2	387
Monocotyledons	9	59	101	2	3	-	1	107
Total	89	303	480	15	16	1	3	515

Table 3. Endemic plant species of the Korean peninsula in disturbed sites of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Family Name	Scientific Name	Freq.
Salicaceae	Populus × tomentiglandulosa T.B.Lee	6
Ranunculaceae	Anemone koraiensis Nakai	3
	Clematis trichotoma Nakai	1
	Clematis heracleifolia DC. (KNA: Clematis urticifolia Nakai ex Kitag.)	1
Apiaceae	Angelica genuflexa Nutt. (KNA: Angelica reflexa B.Y.Lee)	1
Oleaceae	Forsythia koreana (Rehder) Nakai	1
Caprifoliaceae	Weigela subsessilis (Nakai) L.H.Bailey	6
Caprifoliaceae	Patrinia saniculifolia Hemsl.	1
Asteraceae	Aster koraiensis Nakai	4
Asteraceae	Cirsium setidens (Dunn) Nakai	2
Cyperaceae	Carex gifuensis Franch. (KNA: Carex fusanensis Ohwi)	1
Asphodelaceae	Hemerocallis hakuunensis Nakai	3

KNA: Checklist of Vascular Plants in Korea (Korea National Arboretum).

Table 4. Red-list plant species of the Korean peninsula in disturbed sites of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area.

Family	Scientific Name	Degree	Freq.
Apiaceae	Bupleurum euphorbioides Nakai	EN	1
Ericaceae	Rhododendron micranthum Turcz.	NT	2
Primulaceae	Lysimachia pentapetala Bunge	VU	1
Phrymaceae	Erythranthe tenellus (Bunge) G.L.Nesom	NT	1

EN: Endangerd, NT: near threatened, VU: vulnerable.

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Kim, Y.-S.; Han, G.-I.; Kim, S.-B.; Lee, M.-W.; Song, S.-K.; Kim, S.-G.; Heo, T.-I. A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea. Diversity 2025, 17, 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17060378

AMA Style

Kim Y-S, Han G-I, Kim S-B, Lee M-W, Song S-K, Kim S-G, Heo T-I. A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea. Diversity. 2025; 17(6):378. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17060378

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Young-Soo, Gyu-Il Han, Seong-Bin Kim, Min-Woo Lee, Se-Kyu Song, Sang-Geun Kim, and Tae-Im Heo. 2025. "A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea" Diversity 17, no. 6: 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17060378

APA Style

Kim, Y.-S., Han, G.-I., Kim, S.-B., Lee, M.-W., Song, S.-K., Kim, S.-G., & Heo, T.-I. (2025). A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea. Diversity, 17(6), 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17060378

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A Floristic Analysis of Vascular Plants by the Disturbance Type and Application of Ecological Restoration Strategies in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area of South Korea

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Site Selection

2.2. Field Surveys and Plant Identification

2.3. Data Analysis and Index Calculations

3. Results

3.1. Vegetation Characteristics of Disturbed Sites

3.1.1. Floristic Composition of Disturbed Sites

3.1.2. Endemic Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

3.1.3. Rare Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

3.1.4. Alien Plant and Invasive Plant Species in Disturbed Sites

3.2. Comparative Analysis of Naturalization Index (NI), Urbanization Index (UI), and Species Similarity of Disturbed Sites by Region and Disturbance Type

3.2.1. Comparison of NI and UI Between Disturbed Sites and Reference Ecosystems

3.2.2. Comparison of Sørensen Similarity Index Between Disturbed Sites and Reference Ecosystems by Region and Disturbance Type

3.3. Analysis Using Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS)

3.3.1. Analysis of Total Flora by Disturbed Site Type (NMDS and Cluster Analysis)

3.3.2. Analysis of Alien Plant Occurrence by Disturbed Site Type (NMDS and Cluster Analysis)

4. Discussion

4.1. Floristic Characteristics and Ecological Value of the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

4.2. Interpretation of Regional and Disturbance-Type Differences Based on Ecological Indices

4.3. Comparative Analysis of Plant Communities by Disturbance Type in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

4.4. Site-Specific Restoration Strategies and Sustainable Management Approaches for Disturbed Sites in the Baekdudaegan Protected Area

5. Conclusions

Supplementary Materials

Author Contributions

Funding

Institutional Review Board Statement

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of Interest

Appendix A

References

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