A Socio-Ecological Approach to Understanding How Land Use Challenges Human-Elephant Coexistence in Northern Tanzania
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Remote Sensing Data for LULC Analysis
2.3. Household Survey for Primary HEC Hotspots
2.4. Secondary Data for HEC and Environmental Dynamics
2.5. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Elephants
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Land Use / Land Cover (LULC) Class Changes
3.2. Influence of Environmental and Anthropogenic Factors on HEC
3.3. Spatio-Temporal Patterns of HEC and Hotspot Mapping under Different LULC
3.4. Elephant Home Range and Habitat Use
4. Discussion
4.1. Land Use/Land Cover Change Effects on Elephants in EWMA
4.2. Environmental and Anthropogenic Variability Determines HEC
4.3. Spatio-Temporal Patterns of HEC
4.4. Influence of Elephant Home Ranges on HEC
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Acquisition Date | Scenes (Path/Row) | % Cloud Cover | Sensor | Data Source |
---|---|---|---|---|
8/24/1989 | 139/42 | <10% | TM | USGS |
7/2/1999 | 138/42 | <10% | ETM+ | USGS |
7/11/2009 | 137/062 | <10% | ETM+ | USGS |
8/7/2019 | 138/062 | <10% | OLI & TIRS | USGS |
LULC Types | LULC Description |
---|---|
Agriculture | Land actively used to grow crops (seasonal and permanent) |
Bare ground | No vegetation (exposed rock outcrops and bare soil) |
Bushland | Dominated by multi-stemmed plants from a single root base and woody cover |
Forest | >50% canopy cover of woody plants of ≥5 m height |
Grassland | <10% cover of sparse woody plants, dominated by continuous herbaceous cover |
Settlement | Urban and rural settlements (houses, roads, infrastructure) |
Water | Water bodies, mostly permanent (inland water) |
Wetland | Marshes or swamps; saturated land |
Woodland | <50% canopy cover of woody plants of ≥5 m height |
100 % MCP | Sex | No | Annual | Wet | Dry |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | 1 | 552 | 368 | 368 | |
2 | 1278 | 1066 | 704 | ||
3 | 819 | 816 | 169 | ||
Mean (x¯) | 996 | 756 | 644 | ||
95% KDE | No | Season | |||
Wet | Dry | ||||
Male | 1 | 981 | 700 | ||
2 | 816 | 269 | |||
3 | 568 | 472 | |||
Mean (x¯) | 740 | 466 |
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Variable | Unit | Category | Range (Min–Max) |
---|---|---|---|
Dependent variable | |||
HEC occurrence | categorical | 0 and 1 | |
Independent variables | |||
Distance from river | km | continuous | 0–24 |
Distance from main road | km | continuous | 0–13 |
Distance from protected area | km | continuous | 0–46 |
Distance from farmland | km | continuous | 0–18 |
Distance from settlement | km | continuous | 0–60 |
Elevation | m. a. s. l. | continuous | 1125–5120 |
Year | numerical | 2016–2020 | |
NDVI | values | numerical | 0–1 |
Season | categorical | wet and dry | |
Time of day | categorical | night and day |
LULC Classes | LULC Coverage | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1989 | 1999 | 2009 | 2019 | ||||||||
ha | % | ha | % | ha | % | ha | % | ||||
Agriculture | 25,999 | 13.47 | 28,698 | 14.86 | 35,017 | 18.14 | 50,685 | 26.25 | |||
Bare ground | 3291 | 1.70 | 2827 | 1.46 | 2408 | 1.25 | 710 | 0.37 | |||
Bushland | 24,935 | 12.91 | 34,251 | 17.74 | 24,020 | 12.44 | 26,312 | 13.63 | |||
Forest | 2949 | 1.53 | 991 | 0.51 | 1042 | 0.54 | 86 | 0.04 | |||
Grassland | 120,746 | 62.54 | 101,845 | 52.75 | 102,059 | 52.86 | 84,348 | 43.69 | |||
Settlement | 10,350 | 5.36 | 18,002 | 9.32 | 21,060 | 10.91 | 24,599 | 12.74 | |||
Woodland | 4026 | 2.09 | 5507 | 2.85 | 5293 | 2.74 | 5636 | 2.92 | |||
Water bodies | 0 | 0.01 | 8 | 0.01 | 4 | 0.01 | 3 | 0.01 | |||
Wetland | 777 | 0.40 | 944 | 0.49 | 2170 | 1.12 | 694 | 0.36 |
Variable | Estimate | SE | Z | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
(Intercept) | 25.01 | 1.33 | 3.61 | 0.001 |
Elevation (m) | −0.01 | −0.03 | −4.26 | 0.001 |
Distance from farmland (km) | −1.13 | 0.00 | −2.84 | 0.004 |
NDVI | 16.41 | 1.05 | 2.12 | 0.027 |
Distance from PA (km) | −0.81 | 0.31 | −3.09 | 0.007 |
Distance from river (km) | −0.28 | 0.32 | −1.10 | 0.331 |
Distance from settlement (km) | −0.46 | 0.29 | 2.06 | 0.037 |
Distance from road (km) | −0.02 | 0.25 | −1.53 | 0.321 |
Distance from river * from road | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.92 | 0.359 |
Distance from farmland * from PA | 0.01 | 0.01 | 2.31 | 0.021 |
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Sanare, J.E.; Valli, D.; Leweri, C.; Glatzer, G.; Fishlock, V.; Treydte, A.C. A Socio-Ecological Approach to Understanding How Land Use Challenges Human-Elephant Coexistence in Northern Tanzania. Diversity 2022, 14, 513. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070513
Sanare JE, Valli D, Leweri C, Glatzer G, Fishlock V, Treydte AC. A Socio-Ecological Approach to Understanding How Land Use Challenges Human-Elephant Coexistence in Northern Tanzania. Diversity. 2022; 14(7):513. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070513
Chicago/Turabian StyleSanare, John Erasto, Davide Valli, Cecilia Leweri, Gregory Glatzer, Vicki Fishlock, and Anna Christina Treydte. 2022. "A Socio-Ecological Approach to Understanding How Land Use Challenges Human-Elephant Coexistence in Northern Tanzania" Diversity 14, no. 7: 513. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14070513