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Review

Current Understanding of Probiotic Strains and Immune Function: From Gut Microbiota to Systemic Immunity

by
Maciej Piotr Szota
1,2,
Katarzyna Napiórkowska-Baran
1,*,
Aleksandra Wojtkiewicz
3,
Lidia Wydeheft
1,
Adam Wawrzeńczyk
1,
Józef Sławatycki
1,
Paweł Treichel
4,
Ewa Alska
1,
Barbara Zyśk
3 and
Krzysztof Pałgan
1
1
Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland
2
Department of Psychology, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-867 Bydgoszcz, Poland
3
Student Research Club of Clinical Immunology, Department of Allergology, Clinical Immunology and Internal Diseases, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland
4
Katedra Pediatrii, Hematologii, Onkologii, Immunologii I Transplantologii Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(10), 4527; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27104527
Submission received: 30 March 2026 / Revised: 1 May 2026 / Accepted: 6 May 2026 / Published: 18 May 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latest Research on Probiotics: Molecular Mechanisms and Health Applications)
Versions Notes

Abstract

Growing evidence indicates that the gut microbiota is a central regulator of systemic immunity, acting through epithelial barrier integrity, microbial metabolites, and bidirectional signaling with innate and adaptive immune cells. Within this framework, probiotics have attracted substantial interest as tools for immune modulation; however, their effects are not uniform and should not be generalized across species or formulations. This review synthesizes current evidence on the gut microbiota–immune axis and examines how defined probiotic strains influence immune homeostasis, inflammation, and clinical outcomes. Particular emphasis is placed on strain-specific effects among lactic acid bacteria, bifidobacteria, yeast probiotics, and emerging nontraditional candidates, with attention to mechanisms involving cytokine signaling, regulatory T-cell induction, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) modulation, toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), tryptophan metabolites, and bile-acid-dependent signaling. The available literature indicates that the most meaningful immunological effects arise from precisely characterized strains acting in specific host contexts, whereas inconsistent trial design, small sample sizes, variable dosing, and poor strain resolution continue to limit translation. Overall, current data support a shift from generic probiotic use toward mechanism-based, strain-specific, and increasingly personalized strategies for immune modulation.
Keywords: probiotics; gut microbiota; immune modulation; strain specificity; systemic immunity; intestinal barrier; microbial metabolites probiotics; gut microbiota; immune modulation; strain specificity; systemic immunity; intestinal barrier; microbial metabolites

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MDPI and ACS Style

Szota, M.P.; Napiórkowska-Baran, K.; Wojtkiewicz, A.; Wydeheft, L.; Wawrzeńczyk, A.; Sławatycki, J.; Treichel, P.; Alska, E.; Zyśk, B.; Pałgan, K. Current Understanding of Probiotic Strains and Immune Function: From Gut Microbiota to Systemic Immunity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27, 4527. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27104527

AMA Style

Szota MP, Napiórkowska-Baran K, Wojtkiewicz A, Wydeheft L, Wawrzeńczyk A, Sławatycki J, Treichel P, Alska E, Zyśk B, Pałgan K. Current Understanding of Probiotic Strains and Immune Function: From Gut Microbiota to Systemic Immunity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2026; 27(10):4527. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27104527

Chicago/Turabian Style

Szota, Maciej Piotr, Katarzyna Napiórkowska-Baran, Aleksandra Wojtkiewicz, Lidia Wydeheft, Adam Wawrzeńczyk, Józef Sławatycki, Paweł Treichel, Ewa Alska, Barbara Zyśk, and Krzysztof Pałgan. 2026. "Current Understanding of Probiotic Strains and Immune Function: From Gut Microbiota to Systemic Immunity" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 27, no. 10: 4527. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27104527

APA Style

Szota, M. P., Napiórkowska-Baran, K., Wojtkiewicz, A., Wydeheft, L., Wawrzeńczyk, A., Sławatycki, J., Treichel, P., Alska, E., Zyśk, B., & Pałgan, K. (2026). Current Understanding of Probiotic Strains and Immune Function: From Gut Microbiota to Systemic Immunity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 27(10), 4527. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27104527

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