An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Insulin Resistance
3. Type 2 DM
4. Management of DM
4.1. Lifestyle (Diet and Physical Activity)
4.2. Diet
4.3. Physical Activity
- Resistance exercises, which involve utilizing free weights and body weight exercises, have been shown to cause a threefold reduction in HbA1c in patients with T2DM when compared to inactive patients [90]. Another study showed that an 8-week weight-training protocol in patients with T2DM improved insulin and glucose responses upon oral glucose tolerance testing [91]. In addition, this type of training caused an increase in the skeletal muscle mass, which is believed to be due to enhanced muscle glycogen storage, leading to increased glucose uptake from the bloodstream. These findings support the benefit of implementing this type of training in a diabetes management plan.
- Aerobic training is another type of exercise that consists of the continuous movement of large muscles, such as in jogging and walking, for at least 30 min per day for 3–7 days weekly, as per the American Diabetes Association (ADA) guidelines [92]. Aerobic training is a well-established tool in improving HbA1c by improving the lipid metabolism and weight loss [93]. One study showed that in 60 adults with T2DM, 6 months of aerobic training caused a significant reduction in HbA1c and fasting insulin levels [94]. Another study showed that aerobic activity in diabetic patients improved glycemic control, insulin sensitivity and oxidative capacity compared to sedentary individuals [95].
- Combining both resistance and aerobic exercise may be the most effective approach to controlling glucose and lipid metabolism in T2DM, as per the current ADA guidelines. Cuff et al. showed that combining both types of exercises led to a significant increase in muscle glucose uptake and insulin sensitivity when compared to aerobic exercises alone [96]. Another distinguished study comparing the effects of both types of exercises alone and their combination in 915 adults showed that individuals utilizing both regimens had a more significant reduction in HbA1c [97].
5. Pharmacotherapy
6. Current Concepts on Insulin in T2DM
7. Oral Hypoglycemic Agents
7.1. Biguanides
7.2. Sulfonylureas
7.3. Meglitinides
7.4. Thiazolidinediones
7.5. Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1) Agonists
7.6. Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 (DPP-4) Inhibitors
7.7. α-Glucosidase Inhibitors
7.8. Amylin Mimetic
7.9. Bile Acid Binding Resins
7.10. Sodium–Glucose Co-Transporter (SGLT) Inhibitors
8. Effectiveness of Different Classes of Anti-Diabetic Drugs on HbA1c
9. Anti-Diabetic Drugs That Have Been Suspended
10. New Directions for the Prevention and Management of Diabetes Mellitus
11. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drugs | Organ Targeted | Mechanism | References |
---|---|---|---|
TZD and biguanides | Adipose tissue Skeletal muscle | ↓ Insulin resistance | [102,103,104,105,106,107] |
TZD and biguanides | Liver | ↓ Gluconeogenesis | [55] |
SGLT2 inhibitors | Kidney | Glucose elimination in urine | [108] |
SU and meglitinides | Pancreas | Insulin secretagogues | [109,110] |
GLP-1R agonists | Pancreas | Improve response to glucose | [111,112,113] |
Pramlintide | Pancreas | ↓ Glucagon secretion | [114,115,116] |
Pramlintide | Stomach | Delays gastric emptying | [115] |
α-glucosidase inhibitors | Small intestine | Slows absorption of starch | [117,118] |
DPP-4 inhibitors | Plasma | ↓ Incretin breakdown | [119,120] |
Insulin Type | Onset of Action (h) | Peak of Action (h) | Duration of Action (h) | Maximal Duration (h) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rapid-acting | ||||
Lispro | ¼ to ½ | 1 to 2 | 3 to 5 | 4 to 6 |
Aspart | ¼ to ½ | 1 to 2 | 3 to 6 | 5 to 8 |
Glulisine | 0.25 to 0.5 | 0.5 to 1 | 3 to 4 | 4 |
Short-acting | ||||
Regular | ½ to 1 | 2 to 4 | 3 to 6 | 6 to 8 |
Intermediate-acting | ||||
NPH human | 2 to 4 | 8 to 12 | 12 to 20 | 14 to 22 |
Long-acting | ||||
Glargine | 1 to 2 | None | 19 to 24 | 24 |
Detemir | 3 to 4 | 6 to 8 | 20 to 24 | 24 |
Degludec | 1 | 9 | 24 to 42 | 42 |
Insulin combinations | ||||
Protamine/Lispro | 0.25 to 0.4 | 0.5 to 3 | 14 to 24 | 24 |
Protamine/Aspart | 0.1 to 0.2 | 1 to 4 | 18 to 24 | 24 |
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Mahgoub, M.O.; Ali, I.I.; Adeghate, J.O.; Tekes, K.; Kalász, H.; Adeghate, E.A. An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 9328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24119328
Mahgoub MO, Ali II, Adeghate JO, Tekes K, Kalász H, Adeghate EA. An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(11):9328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24119328
Chicago/Turabian StyleMahgoub, Mohamed Omer, Ifrah Ismail Ali, Jennifer O. Adeghate, Kornélia Tekes, Huba Kalász, and Ernest A. Adeghate. 2023. "An Update on the Molecular and Cellular Basis of Pharmacotherapy in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 11: 9328. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24119328